University of Bath PHD Understanding Counter-Terrorism Policy and Practice in the UK since 9/11 Sabir, Rizwaan Sabir Award date: 2014 Awarding institution: University of Bath Link to publication Alternative formats If you require this document in an alternative format, please contact: [email protected] General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 26. Sep. 2021 Understanding Counter-Terrorism Policy and Practice in the UK since 9/11 Rizwaan Sabir A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Bath Department of Social and Policy Sciences March 2014 COPYRIGHT Attention is drawn to the fact that copyright of this thesis rests with the author. A copy of this thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that they must not copy it or use material from it except as permitted by law or with the consent of the author. Contents Acknowledgements i Abstract ii List of Figures iii List of Acronyms iv Introduction 1 Chapter 1: Theorising ‘Power’ and Counter-Terrorism 12 Chapter 2: Methodology 42 Chapter 3: Pursue 94 Chapter 4: Prevent 132 Chapter 5: Prevent, Universities and Intelligence 167 Chapter 6: Counter-Terrorism as Counterinsurgency 195 Conclusion 227 Bibliography 236 Acknowledgements Thank you to the Economic, Social and Research Council (ESRC) for providing me with the resources to undertake this research. Thank you to all the respondents who took time out of their busy schedules to share their experiences, feelings and inner thoughts with me. My research experience would not have been as interesting or as enlightening without your contribution. My family - mum and dad, my grandmother, my brothers Irfan and Hamaad, and my sister Aneesa. They believed when I lost faith. They showed patience when I showed none. They showed me the meaning of unconditional love. Thank you to my supervisor, Professor David Miller. He never told me what to do or how to do it. Instead, he guided me toward that which was half asleep within me. There are no words to describe my gratitude for all that Dr Rod Thornton has done for me. Without his trust, support and help, I would not have gotten this far. From the moment I began my research until present, Dr Arun Kundnani was there, answering my never ending stream of questions and queries, reading through drafts and offering his expertise. Never did an email or call go unanswered. Never was he too busy for me. A friend and inspiration. Thank you. Thank you to my friend and mentor, Dr Maria Ryan, who helped me bring a sense of balance to my thinking and helped me stay alert and awake with the most delicious of coffee. Finally, a huge thank you to my friends - for their understanding, love and support. i Abstract This dissertation is an examination of the UK’s counter-terrorism policies and practices that have been adopted since the attacks of 9/11 in the United States. Using a theoretical framework of ‘power’ and ‘hegemony’ to guide the research, and an investigative research approach, the dissertation examines how the UK has, in the name of confronting an ideologically and religiously motivated global opponent, enacted a two pronged approach that integrates key aspects of counterinsurgency doctrine and practice. The first ties into the use of ‘coercion’ that is undertaken under the policy heading of ‘Pursue’ and covers activities that revolve around the use of policing, military, juridical and executive powers to investigate, prosecute and take preventative and pre-emptive action against suspected terrorists and the second ties into the use of ‘propaganda’ and ‘communication’ that is undertaken through the ‘Prevent’ policy, which attempts to challenge and counter those individuals who do not promulgate unlawful or violent views but support al-Qaida’s grievances and ideology and are thus claimed to be more likely to become involved in terrorism. In order to inform Prevent activity, information and intelligence – a cardinal principle of counterinsurgency – is a prerequisite. This dissertation therefore shows how intelligence and information is collected and used by examining Prevent activity at UK universities. It then proceeds to contextualise counter-terrorism policy and practice through an examination of counterinsurgency doctrine, and in particular, ‘strategic communication’. The dissertation argues that the integration of key elements of counterinsurgency doctrine into counter-terrorism policy and practice suggests that the policy, rather than being a mere response to terrorism, is an organised and strategic effort to use coercion and propaganda to control the behaviour and activity of Muslim communities and thereby constitutes a form of state-terrorism. ii List of Figures Figure 1: Breakdown of the total number of FOI requests sent by organisation (p.68) Figure 2: Funding issued by FCO, OSCT and CLG for Prevent from 2007 – 2011. (p.142) Figure 3: Breakdown of funding provided to National Muslim Women’s Advisory Group (NMWAG) for 2007-2011 (p.146) Figure 4: Quilliam Foundation sources of funding for 2009-2010 (p.148) Figure 5: Yearly breakdown of Channel referrals from 2006-2013 (p.158) Figure 6: UK Counter-Terrorism Structure (p.114) Figure 7: Total number of people arrested, charged under the Terrorism Acts 2000, 2006, ATCSA 2001, PTA 2005 and TPIMs Act 2011 and subsequently convicted under the Terrorism Acts 2000 & 2006 from 2001 until 2011. (p.121) Figure 8: Indicators used to assess vulnerability to radicalisation (p.179) Figure 9: Nottinghamshire Police Criminal Intelligence System entry (p.186) Figure 10: Nottinghamshire Police Intelligence Report (p.186) Figure 11: Breakdown of Prevent activity to be undertaken at all levels. (p.207) Figure 12: ‘Surface and Subsurface Elements of an Insurgency’. (p.208) iii List of Acronyms AC – Assistant Commissioner ACPO – Association of Chief Police Officers ACPO TAM – Association of Chief Police Officers (Terrorism and Allied Matters) ACT NOW – All Communities Together AMOSSHE - Association of Managers for Student Services in Higher Education ANPR – Automatic Number Plate Recognition AQ – Al-Qaida AQAP - al-Qaida in the Arabian Peninsula ATCSA – Anti-Terrorism Crime and Security Act 2001 AUCSO - Association of Chief Security Officers BHD - British Hajj Delegation BIS – Department for Business, Innovation and Skills BSA – British Sociological Association CBRN - chemical, biological, radioactive and nuclear CCC – Creating Caring Communities CCTV – Close Circuit Television CLF - The Community Leadership Fund CLG – Department for Communities and Local Government CONTEST – Counter Terrorism Strategy CPS – Crown Prosecution Service CRU – Central Referral Unit CSC – Centre for Social Cohesion CT – Counter-Terrorism CTC – Counter-Terrorism Command CTIU – Counter-Terrorism Intelligence Unit CTLP – Counter-Terrorism Local Profiles CTU – Counter-Terrorism Unit DAC – Detective Assistant Commissioner DOJ – Department of Justice DPA – Data Protection Act DPP - Director of Public Prosecutions iv ECHR - European Convention of Human Rights EEA - European Economic Area EIW - Engaging with the Islamic World ELG – Executive Liaison Group EU - European Union Europol – European Police Office FCO – Foreign and Commonwealth Office FOI – Freedom of Information GCHQ – Government Communication Headquarters GMP – Greater Manchester Police HJS – Henry Jackson Society HMIC - Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary (HMIC HT – Hizb ut-Tahrir ICO – Information Commissioner’s Office I-Ops – Information Operations IRA – Irish Republican Army JTAC – Joint Terrorism Analysis Centre KLE – Key Leader Engagement MCB – Muslim Council of Britain MCU - Muslim Community Organisation MCU – Muslim Contact Unit MI5 – Security Services MI6 - Secret Intelligence Service MoD – Ministry of Defence MPAC - Muslim Public Affairs Committee MPS – Metropolitan Police Service MSF – Muslim Safety Forum NCSB - National Coordinating Office of Special Branch NIM - National Intelligence Model NMWAG – National Muslim Women’s Advisory Group NUS - National Union of Students NWCTU – North West Counter-Terrorism Unit v OSCT – Office for Security and Counter-Terrorism Unit PAHELO - Police Association of Higher Education Liaison Officers PBI – Projecting British Islam PMLO – Police Military Liaison Officer PNC – Police National Computer PND – Police National Database PSCO – Police Community Support Officer PSNI - Police Service in Northern Ireland PsyOps – Psychological Operations RICU - Research, Information and Communication Unit RMW – Radical Middle Way SIAC – Special Immigration Appeals Court SNP – Scottish National Party SOCA - Serious Organised Crime Agency SPO - Security & Partnership Officers TACT – Terrorism Act TPIM’s – Terrorism Prevention