Notes Introduction 1 . This directorate was successively called: DG Countries and Overseas Territories, DG Overseas Development (1963), DG Development Aid (1968), DG Development (1975), DG Development and Cooperation (2010) (Niçaise, 2007). 1 ‘Grandeurs et Servitudes Européennes en Afrique’ (European Greatness and Servitude in Africa) * By reference to Albert Sarraut (Colonial Minister from 1920 to 1924 and again from 1932 to 1933): A. Sarraut (1931), Grandeur et Servitude Coloniales (Paris: Sagittaire). 1. French West Arica; French Equatorial Africa and all other French Overseas Territories; the Belgian Congo and Rwanda; the Trust territory of Somaliland under Italian Administration; Netherland New Guinea. Algeria was offered a specific status. 2 . Indeed, for a real free trade area to exist, overseas territories, once independent, would have had to abolish trade barriers among themselves. However, the associates were left to determine their own trade relations with each other and third parties. 3 . According to Grilli, it represented no more than 10% of the total amount of aid delivered by the Member States. 4 . Within the framework of the FIDES, projects for funding were proposed by local colonial authorities with the help of consultancy ‘bureaux’, either public or private. They were assessed by the central administration in Paris, approved by a Committee chaired by the Minister of Overseas France and implemented by the local authorities with the help of French firms (Valette, 1984, pp. 222–223). 2 Brussels or the Last French Colony: French Colonial Officials’ Leadership in Designing DG8 1 . The DG8 chart before 1963: Directorate A: Affaires Générales. Directorate B: Etudes et programmes de Développement. Directorate C: Opérations finan- cières et techniques du Fonds de Développement. Directorate D: Echanges commerciaux. 2 . See on this: AEC/25/1980/1045, note from Lefebvre to Hendus, 24 November 1961, sending him a counter-project and complaining about the repartition of the competences between the two directorates. 3 . The DG8 chart after 1963: Directorate A: Affaires Générales. Directorate B: Etudes de Développement. Directorate C: Fonds de Développement. Directorate D: Echanges commerciaux. 212 Notes 213 4 . Ferrandi’s Directorate included the following divisions or units: programmes (run by a German lawyer, Erich Wirsing); opérations financières (from 1967 run by André Auclert, an ex-colonial official); opérations et contrôles tech- niques (run by Gaetano Sorge, an Italian civil engineer who had formerly worked in Tangier in the international administration, replaced in 1970 by Corrado Cornelli, an Italian, former architect). In 1973, Cornelli’s unit included Gunter Grüner (an agronomist who worked for the industry of Potash in Alsace in the overseas section, Africa/Asia) who dealt with agri- culture. Albert Berrens, from Luxembourg (a former engineer in the Belgian Congo) was in charge of the roads and Daniel Vincent (a French official from polytechnic) was responsible for industry and infrastructure in general. 5 . Proposals which had not been accepted by the EDF Committee were forwarded to the EEC Council of Ministers for approval, then forwarded back to the Commission for it to make a formal decision. 6 . A qualified majority meant that 67 votes (out of 100) were needed for a project to be adopted. France and Germany each had 33 votes, Luxemburg, 1 and the other three Member States, 11. 7 . To have a good example of this process of negotiations, see the report of Ferrandi’s trip in Senegal (15–22 February 1964): AJF/96/Senegal, letter from Paye, French Ambassador to Senegal to Triboulet, Minister of Cooperation, 11 March 1964. 8 . AEC/25/1980/1395, note from Hendus to Rochereau, referring to Rochereau’s visit in Washington accompanied by Ferrandi, 3 February 1970. 9 . Answer concerning questions by the IBRD about the functioning of the EDF. 3 ‘Du Bon Usage de la Tournée’: DG8’s Quest for Legitimacy 1 . He referred here to a very critical article of the Manchester Guardian. 2 . AEC/25/1980/1323, letter from Ferrandi to Hendus, 6 July 1966, referring to a film on ‘water in Upper Volta’ played at the ECSC Congress (Luxembourg, 25–26 October 1966) where he gave a talk. 3 . AJF/96/Ivory Coast, letter from Leygues, French Ambassador to the Ivory Coast, to the MAE, 10 December 1964. It relates in depth the programme of a project inauguration where Cellerier, Frisch and Hendus received a medal from the President Houphouët-Boigny. 4 . Programmes of those visits are to be found in: AEC 25/1980/1341,1342, 1387,1389,1390,1422,1892. 5 . AEC/25/1980/1611, line 802 (expenses concerning trips) for the year 1967, 7,260,000 units of account (out of 32,250,000). By comparison, DG1 (External Relations), the other main consumer, only spent 4,000,000 units of account. 6 . AEC/25/1980/1678, note on the information campaigns in the AASM without date, without signature: this survey, realized by the Institut Français d’Opinion Publique during the year 1964 shows that in Senegal, 33% of people living in Dakar, 29% in other towns, 14% in the countryside had some knowledge of the EEC, whatever the exact definition they could give of it. This data has to be taken with caution as no indications were given as to the methodology used. 214 Notes 4 Flag Dictatorship Within the European Commission? The Construction of DG8’s Autonomy 1 . On these questions, see Checkel, 2005; Christiansen, 1997; Egeberg, 1996, 2006; Ellinas and Suleiman, 2012; Georgagakis, 2010; Hooghe, 2000, 2001, 2005; Laffan, 2004; Menon, 2003; Michelmann, 1978; Pierson, 1996a; Shore, 2005; Trondal, 2007; Weiss, 1982; Wonka, 2007. 2 . See for example AEC/25/1980/37, minute of the commission of the European Parliament in charge of the relations with the AASM, 9 February 1968. 3 . TA/312/1889, letter from Cunningham to Ashford, Treasury, 31 May 1967. It refers to Ferrandi’s interview with a German Journal Europaische Gemainschaft, April 1967. It also gives some interesting figures concerning the tenders for contracts for the 1st EDF: in French ex-states locally established firms tendered for 40% of the number of contracts offered. French firms locally non-estab- lished tendered only for 3% of the number of contracts offered. 4 . Regarding this, see AJF/96/Niger, letter from the President of this organiza- tion to Hamani Diori, 6 April 1961 (included in a letter from Colombani to the Secretary of State in charge of the relations with the states of the French Community, 11 April 1961). 5 . Interview Gérard Vernier, who, from 1973 to 1986, worked in the Finance Directorate of DG8 and was responsible for informing the enterprises of EDF procedures and calls for tenders. 6 . Share of the adjudication for the EDF public works for the 2nd EDF (situ- ation on the 31st December 1967): France (58.11%); Germany (18.28%); Italy (4.87%); Belgium (2.72%); Associated States (16.02%), (AEUD, European Commission, answer to the written question no. 308/1968, by Pedini (Italy), European Parliament). 7 . The FAC was the successor of the FIDES and the main aid instrument of the Ministry of Cooperation. 8 . For an example of practical problems related to this lack of technical assist- ance see AJF/95/1, note by Colombani, including a report by Haffner, contrô- leur technique of the EDF, 23 May 1961. 9 . See for a good example AJF/95/1, letter from Roques (Secretariat of State in charge of the relations with the states of the French Community), to the Secretary General of the Inter-ministerial Committee for questions relating to the EEC, 6 February 1961, where he refers to ‘confidential’ letters sent to him by the French Société Générale d’Exploitation Industrielle (SOGEI) and their complaints about the rules defined by the European Commission concerning the distribution of contracts. 10 . AEC/26/1969/666, answer by the Commission to a written question no. 40, by Pedini, 23 June 1966, European Parliament. Contracts concerning these preliminary studies and technical assistance were established in the name of the state concerned, signed by his representative and countersigned by the Chief Authorising Officer. 11 . The distribution of the contracts for technical assistance by nationality among consultancy firms was the following (in amount of money): 1st EDF: France (24.56%); Germany (20.56); Italy (19.62), Belgium (13.88), the Netherlands(11.39), Luxembourg (1.27); AASM (8.72). 2nd EDF (situation on the 31st December 1967): France (20.67); Germany (22); Italy (15.20); Belgium Notes 215 (10.34), Luxembourg (0.45), AASM (25.67). Figures to be found in: AEUD, European Commission, answer to the written question no. 308/1968. 5 Fashoda Revisited: The Effects of the First EEC Enlargement on DG8 1 . In 1898, when both Britain and France were engaged in the Scramble for Africa, the two powers were in contention for the control of the strategically impor- tant town of Fashoda in East Africa. Britain’s claim eventually prevailed. 2 . He sent him several documents concerning the history and functioning of the programming system of British aid and the minute of a meeting between a delegation of the Commission (including Krohn, Westhoff, Durieux, Wirsing, Ugo, Auclert, Van der Vaeren, Rhein and Bistolfi) and a delegation of the BODA (Brussels, 16 March 1972). 3 . This Commission was created in 1950 by colonial powers in Africa (most notably France and Britain) to encourage their technical cooperation. 4 . The Organisme Saharien (1962–1965), the Organisme de Coopération Industrielle (1966), the Directoire de l’Entreprise Minière et Chimique and the Compagnie des Potasses du Congo (1970–1973). 5 . Directorate A (Affaires Générales et Produits de base): Foley; Directorate B (Echanges commerciaux et Développement): Durieux; Directorate C (Programmes et Projets du FED): Wirsing; Directorate D (Direction Technique du FED): Cornelli.