EXAMINING THE IMPEDIMENTS TO CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN WEST AFRICA: A STUDY OF THE ECOWAS INTERVENTIONS IN LIBERIA (1990) AND COTE D’IVOIRE (2010). Town Emmanuel Ampomah (AMPEMM001) A minor dissertation submitted in partial fulfilmentCape of the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of Socialof Science in International Relations Faculty of the Humanities University of Cape Town 2019 University Supervisor Associate Professor John Akokpari i The copyright of this thesis vests inTown the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes Capeonly. of Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University COMPULSORY DECLARATION This work has not been previously submitted in whole, or in part, for the award of any degree. It is my own work. Each significant contribution to, and quotation in, this dissertation from the work, or works, of other people has been attributed, and has been cited and referenced. Signature: Date: 22 July 2019 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I owe a depth of gratitude to the underlisted individuals and organizations for their immense contributions towards my academic work and personal development: To Associate Professor John Akokpari, thank you for the advice, support and guidance throughout the conceptualization and writing of this piece, To the Mastercard Foundation, I am extremely grateful for your support throughout my academic journey at the University of Cape Town, To my family, especially Ebenezer and Grace Ampomah, you ignite hope in me every day, To Danielle Nkau, I can’t thank you enough for your support and concern. iii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to the ECOWAS Commission, for their relentless efforts towards making West Africa a haven for all. iv List of acronyms AAFC Allied Forces of the Community ACS American Colonisation Society AFL Armed Forces of Liberia AU African Union CCR Centre for Conflict Resolution DDR Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration ECOMOG ECOWAS Cease-fire Monitoring Group ECOWARN ECOWAS Early Warning and Response Network ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States ECPF ECOWAS Conflict Prevention Framework EPP ECOWAS Peace Plan EU European Union FES Friedrich Ebert Stiftung IEC Independent Electoral Commission IFMC Inter-Faith Mediation Committee IGNU Interim Government of National Unity INPFL Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia MOJA Movement for Justice in Africa MSC Mediation and Security Council NPFL National Patriotic Front of Liberia OMC Observation and Monitoring Centre OPA Ouagadougou Peace Agreement PAL Progressive Alliance of Liberia PAPP Pretoria Agreement on the Peace Process in the Côted’Ivoire PDCI Democratic Party of Côte d’Ivoire PKO Peacekeeping Operation PMAD Protocol on Mutual Assistance and Defence v PRC People’s Redemption Council PSC Peace and Security Council RUF Revolutionary United Front SMC Standing Mediation Committee TWP True Whig Party UN United Nations UNOCI United Nations Operations in Côte d’Ivoire UNOMIL United Nations Mission in Liberia UNSC United Nations Security Council vi TABLE OF CONTENTS COMPULSORY DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................................... II ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................................................................... III DEDICATION ......................................................................................................................................................................... IV LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................................................ V ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................................................ IX CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................................................................... 10 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY...................................................................................................................... 11 1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................................................................ 13 1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .................................................................................................................... 14 1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ......................................................................................................................... 15 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE ............................................................................................................................................. 15 1.6 METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................................................... 15 1.7 LIMITATIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 16 1.8 SCOPE OF THE STUDY .................................................................................................................................. 16 1.9 ARRANGEMENT OF CHAPTERS ..................................................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................................................................... 18 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................................................................................ 18 2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 18 2.2 CONFLICT ................................................................................................................................................ 18 2.3 DRIVERS OF CONFLICTS IN WEST AFRICA ................................................................................................... 20 2.4 SECURITY REGIONALISM .................................................................................................................... 22 2.5 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................................... 24 2.6 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................... 29 CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................................................................. 30 INSTITUTIONALIZING CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN WEST AFRICA ...................................................................... 30 3.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 30 3.2 PROTOCOL ON NON-AGGRESSION (1978) .................................................................................................... 30 3.3 PROTOCOL ON MUTUAL ASSISTANCE AND DEFENCE, 1981 (PMAD)................................................................ 32 3.4 PROTOCOL RELATING TO THE MECHANISM FOR CONFLICT PREVENTION, MANAGEMENT, RESOLUTION, PEACE-KEEPING AND SECURITY, 1999 (MECHANISM) .................................................................... 35 3.5 ECOWAS PROTOCOL ON DEMOCRACY AND GOOD GOVERNANCE, 2001 ................................................... 38 3.6 THE ECOWAS CONFLICT PREVENTION FRAMEWORK, 2008 (ECPF) ......................................................... 39 3.7 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................... 41 CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................................................................... 42 ECOWAS INTERVENTION IN THE LIBERIAN CIVIL WAR, 1990-1997 ........................................................................ 42 4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 42 4.2 BACKGROUND TO THE CONFLICT ................................................................................................................ 42 4.3 ECOWAS INTERVENTION ........................................................................................................................... 44 4.3.1 RATIONALE BEHIND THE INTERVENTION .................................................................................................. 45 4.3.1 LEGALITY OF THE INTERVENTION ............................................................................................................ 49 4.4 THE ECOWAS CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN LIBERIA ............................................................... 50 vii 4.4.1 THE MILITARY APPROACH ......................................................................................................................