Ceuta & the EU Customs Union How to Europeanize Europe´s margins? Bachelor-thesis June 22nd, 2012 Studies: Sociale Geografie, Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen Student: Janna Völpel Student-number: 3015041 Supervisor: Dr. Olivier Thomas Kramsch Acknowledgements I would like to use this foreword to thank all the participants of this research, my supervisors at Radboud University (Olivier Thomas Kramsch and Xavi Ferrer-Gallardo) and teachers at the NIMAR-institute in Rabat for making this research possible and give me inspiring input over and over again. I also would like to express deep sorrow I feel knowing about the conditions some border-people from Morocco have to stand in their daily life and which are now forced to adapt to a new situation, which might even endanger their survival – especially for elderly and women. Instead of extending this foreword I would like to quote from an Argentinian- Brasilian friend of mine, whose ideas I appreciate even more after researching on Ceuta and the border-region from post-colonial perspectives: “Hay una técnica que te puede ser muy útil, intenta descubrir diferencias en donde el común de los hombres no ve sino semejanzas e intenta descubrir semejanzas donde los hombres no ven sino diferencias” Leonardo de Matos Lima (“There is a technique which can be very useful - try to discover the difference where people do not see but similarities and try to discover similarities where people do not see but difference”.) 2 Summary This qualitative, explorative case-study aims to theorize recent transformation processes in the border-region of Ceuta and Northern Morocco. A recent decision in 2011 by Ceuta as consequence and cause of transformations has been to join the EU Customs Union in 2012. Further it seeks to understand how the decision-making process and debate have been influenced by “Europeanization” –processes and carry attributes of “European-ness”. Using post-colonial theories attributes of Europeanization are traced in transformations, arguments in the debate about joining the EU Customs Union and thinking of border-people from both sides of the border. Besides, potential attributes of Europeanization in potential socio-economic effects in the border region are put into scene. That way an answer is given to the research-question, in which way attributes of European-ness, otherness, Europeanization and resistance are reflected in transformations in the border-region, factors in the debate about joining the EU-Customs Union and thinking of border-people from both sides in Ceuta. This research has thus challenged and proved applicability of postcolonial theory to the special border phenomena of Ceuta, also highlighting one-sidedness of decision-making (Ceuta as site of decision) impacting also the other side of the border (the Moroccan part of the border-region). During the research process some background information resulted essential to understand the subject of analysis, namely transformations concerning the joining of the Customs Union in Ceuta: first of all it is important to know that the Customs Union is an institution appointed to create a single European market and regulating same conditions for international importation into the EU member-states. Ceuta is still a free-zone not adhering to the fiscal regime of that institution. Fiscal conditions are therefore advantageous in the city. It was Ceuta´s decision in 1986 (when Spain became a member-state of the EU) not to join the Customs. Reasons were disadvantageous historical and economic singularities, which were to be compensated by maintaining a special fiscal regime. The latter has determined Ceuta’s economic structure relying on irregular trading to Northern Morocco (irregular - because the border to Morocco is until now not recognized by Morocco, claiming Moroccan- ness of the territory). Consequently interwoven relations with Northern Morocco find expression in every-day routine, while at the same time Spanish-ness and European-ness are being accentuated. The border-passage is the site, where the economic particularity of the system is especially visible, but the singularity is also reflected in the life and discourses of the Moroccan traders involved. The economic model of Ceuta became subject to debate due to changing conditions since 1986. The decision- making about joining the Customs Union started at the decision not to join. Arguments have developed through time, finally leading to a positive decision in 2011. Before, worries about potentially negative effects such as the change in prices affecting consumption costs and importation were stronger. The consequent reduction of irregular trade would require re-orientation of the economy and cause unemployment. Besides more economic reasons, political tensions with Morocco were feared. In the official discourse, though, the loss of jobs and basis of survival for thousands of poor Moroccan border-traders is not mentioned. Arguments about positive effects such as improving Ceuta’s status in the European Community, affirming its European-ness also before Morocco 3 and the urgent need for reform were convincing in 2011, especially given the disarmament of customs tariffs between Morocco and the EU. Postcolonial theories chosen for analysis are based on the concepts “Europeanization” and “European-ness” proposed by Kuus (2004). Her analysis of how Europe is configured in relation to the Oriental is fundamental, explaining the constitution of self-images. Conditionality in the way Europe builds up “good” relationships to its “outside” and Eastern inside is based on demanding conformity to European values in exchange. “Not-yet”- European areas, such as Morocco and places marked by otherness within the Union such as Ceuta seek to attribute more European-ness to themselves –corresponding European standards. Strategies of attaining this are especially grounded in discursive shifting of boundaries of European-ness away from the own place and even beyond Europe´s margins - which then Europeanize themselves discursively. Mignolo´s “postcolonial” thinking (2000) or “borderthinking” is about focusing on dichotomous concepts to decolonize dichotomous, modernist categorization. For the case of Ceuta´s border this refers especially to the line separating the European from the Other, the colonized Oriental world of Morocco and Africa. Researching on the border-region and border-people, who might have a perspective from the border much more than others, goes in hand with these ideas. It is then crucial to think from dichotomous concepts, taking into account the colonial difference. Theoretical contributions by Kramsch focus on the European Neighborhood policy implying a similar conditionality in Eurocentric policy as described by Kuus. Also diversity and potential of resistance are aspects of relevance of Kramsch´s article (2011) pointing to agency and power within the process of Europeanization. Economic aspects of the decision-making around the transformation around the border are significant, regarding development as part of the modernity and attribute of European-ness. Template thinking and the process of “neoliberalization” (Sparke, 2002) transmit principles related to the logic of European-ness according to Sparke. Neoliberalist ideas are thus indicative of the ”European-value-package” (in Ceuta AND in Morocco). Rumford points to the particularity of borders emphasizing change and transformation through Europeanizing and borderwork realized by simple border-people contesting established borders and multiplying them (Rumford, 2008). From these theories indicators have been operationalized in order to analyze attributes of more static European- ness, Otherness, and more dynamic processes of Europeanization and resistance. Qualitative methods have been applied to gather data in the field as well as literature study of different media since 1984 for the analysis. Respondents for the research included two distinct groups: Moroccan border-people daily crossing the border for work (having opportunities to think from the border) and experts on the economic decision-making about the Customs Union from Ceuta. The exhaustive analysis brought along certain key-findings which are worth mentioning here: The aim of the study to theorize the transformations by the recent and current developments in Ceuta and understanding the decision-making process and debate about the Customs Union was attained. Indicators from post-colonial theories have helped to generate huge amounts of data and to create a differentiated image of Europeanization in the border-region. 4 Europeanization is reflected for transformations before the decision-making e.g. considering construction of the border fence, substitution of kinds of goods and origins (now originating mainly in Europe), the Tanger-Med- project or the gradual liberalization of Morocco. Europeanizing transformations of Morocco put Ceuta under pressure stimulating reaction – namely the debate about the Customs Union. Europeanization seems a self- perpetuating process then, relying on mutual stimulation and reaction on both sides of the border. Thereby borders to ´other` less European Europe´s and Orients, such as Ceuta and Morocco and more European Europes are multiplied discursively. Arguments justifying the decision about the Customs Union are driven by neoliberal template thinking with the aim of modernization – Europeanizing the city. For the thinking of border- people we have evidence for long-lasting, penetrating Europeanization without any clear beginning.