CHAPTER 6 OVERVIEW OF EARLY SCIENTIFIC WORK, RESOURCE DATA COLLECTION, MANAGEMENT, AND CONSERVATION 1812–1982 Historic Native American and Hispanic resource use degradation that subsequently were addressed in ever- and conservation prior to the Anglo occupation and domi- increasing degrees by governmental agencies. nation of the Middle Rio Grande Basin was documented Most notable is the characteristic evolution from virtu- in Chapters 3–5. Various Indian groups exploited water ally unregulated resource use on the frontier, especially and a range of faunal and floral resources, arable soil, on the public domain. Driven and supported by federal and rock materials. They developed strategies, in some and local legislative acts, policies, agencies, and monetary instances, for sustained use of these resources on a sub- remuneration, the pattern shifted to a relatively well- sistence basis. Their relatively low populations and low regulated and reasonably balanced resource management levels of technology generally ensured an ongoing relative system emphasizing self-sustainable and wise use pro- abundance of most of these resources. In rare situations grams and policies, involving an array of public agencies where intensive local use or climatic events depleted a and “watchdog” environmental groups. A few legislative needed resource, Native Americans moved to a new area acts from the early exploitation period, such as the 1872 or traded for the scarce commodity. In the colonial pe- Mining Act, remain in effect. The 104th Congress has at- riod, the Spanish generally interrupted such strategies. tempted to modify many resource management laws cre- Hispanics brought not only an array of new technolo- ated in recent decades. gies, which enabled them to exploit eco-cultural resources The following overview includes (1) a discussion of the more extensively and intensively than the indigenous early naturalists and environmental scientists and their populations, but they also brought a new attitude regard- work, (2) a chronological narrative about conservation and ing environmental use. The Spanish, unlike Native management of land and water resources by public agen- Americans, saw themselves as separate from nature and cies, (3) significant resource management legislation, and viewed natural disasters as acts of God over which they (4) a discussion of important private organizations' effect had no control (Weber 1992: 29). Although most residents on management and preservation of the region’s environ- maintained basic subsistence lifestyles, some resources mental resources during the territorial and statehood (to were exported to Mexico by wealthier private individu- 1982) periods. A chronology of landmark events, the work als or government officials. By the late 18th century, in of naturalists, scientists, government agencies, and envi- spite of some governmental regulation, there were some ronmental organizations and resource legislation follows. local water shortages and contamination, decimation or depletion of forage, and soil erosion. By the time of the EARLY NATURALISTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL arrival of the U.S. Army and early Anglo settlers in the SCIENTISTS IN THE STUDY REGION, 1831–1924 mid- to late-1840s, grass and wood supplies were in de- cline or nearly exhausted around the Rio Grande Valley Various Native American groups, who have lived in the from above Cochiti Pueblo to below Socorro. region for more than 10,000 years, might be called the first Anglo Americans also brought new technologies and, “naturalists.” Over thousands of years, knowledge of more important, a new attitude toward the environment. geography, surface waters, rocks and minerals, plants and Like that of the Spaniards, Anglos' attitudes emanated animals—their distribution, seasonal or annual occur- from a religious background that viewed humans as sepa- rences, and uses—was gained through observation, study, rate from the natural environment. Also related to this and experimentation. Native Americans passed this philosophy was a resource exploitation strategy based on knowledge orally from one generation to the next. They maximum harvest of resources for maximum profit. To shared non-sacred aspects of this information with promote primarily Anglo settlement and development of Hispanics who began settling in New Mexico at the end the region, the Federal Government passed many natural of the 16th century. Hispanics brought new plants, ani- resource laws, created numerous agencies, and appropri- mals, and associated knowledge, which in turn they ated many millions of dollars. Initially, virtually all fed- shared with Native Americans. eral and territorial laws promulgated intensive use of the Native Americans also had considerable knowledge of environment. This led to various forms of environmental astronomical phenomena and extensive knowledge of the USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 331 geography of the region. Early Spanish explorers relied century, such as W.H.H. Davis (1982), wrote rather de- on Indian guides for travel directions, locations of water, tailed accounts of land use along the Middle Rio Grande and food sources. This kind of information was also made Valley. available to Spanish Colonial New Mexico’s Hispanic and The first individuals trained in the physical or biologi- later Anglo explorers and settlers. Chronicles from early cal sciences to work in the study region were botanists. Spanish expeditions (Hammond and Rey 1966, 1967; Two East Coast botanists, John Torrey of Columbia and Hodge 1946; and Schroeder and Matson 1965) contain the Asa Gray of Harvard, collected, classified, and named first written descriptions, albeit sketchy, of the land, wa- plants for a botanical study of North America in the 1840s. ter, biotic components, and indigenous peoples. Thomas Nuttall, a prominent Philadelphia botanist, and The best known map maker in Spanish Colonial New George Engelmann, a St. Louis physician and expert on Mexico was Captain Don Bernardo Miera y Pacheco. Af- cacti, assisted in this ambitious project (Dickerman 1985: ter his arrival in Santa Fe in 1756, he produced several 159; Goetzmann 1966: 321). These plant and zoological maps, including perhaps his best known map, prepared collections resulted in descriptive catalogs and invento- in 1779 (Fig. 74). This map shows, with relative accuracy, ries that organized large amounts of data for use by later, streams and rivers, mountain ranges, place names, and more theoretically oriented biologists. Scientists for- settlements. He died in Santa Fe in 1785 (Adams and warded faunal specimens to the Smithsonian Institution, Chavez 1956: 2–4, 161; Chavez 1975: 229–230). where they were cataloged and classified under the di- The most comprehensive work on the geography, agri- rect supervision of Spencer F. Baird, a student of John culture, and human populations of colonial New Mexico James Audubon (Goetzmann 1966: 322–323). was produced by Fray Francisco Atanasio Dominguez, a Collecting in New Mexico began in 1841, when Will- Franciscan priest who traveled across the region in 1776 iam Gambel, a protege of Nuttall, arrived in Santa Fe in (Adams and Chavez 1956). He carefully recorded his ob- July. He collected botanical and zoological specimens in servations on the landscape and settlements, which re- the nearby Rio Grande Valley and Sangre de Cristo Range. sulted in a large manuscript discovered in Mexico City in The Gambel oak was later named in his honor (Dickerman 1928 and first published 28 years later. Several other reli- 1985: 159, 163–164). gious figures and government officials, such as Benavides In 1846 another plant collector, Frederick A. Wislizenus (Ayer 1965), Morfi (Simmons 1977), Chacon (Simmons (1969), came to New Mexico just prior to the U.S. Army’s 1985), and Pino, Barreiro, and Escudero (Carroll and Hag- invasion. During his relatively brief passage through the gard 1942), authored manuscripts that contain less region and into Chihuahua, Wislizenus collected five new comprehensive and detailed, but nonetheless useful, en- species, including pinyon and ponderosa pines, walking- vironmental history data on the period. stick cholla, a yucca, and an echinocactus (Dickerman The first scientific studies of the region were carried out 1985: 164–166). by Anglo naturalists from the midwestern or eastern Later in 1846, Lt. William Emory of the U.S. Corps of United States, some of whom were actually trained as Topographical Engineers collected botanical specimens medical doctors. They primarily collected plants and ani- along the Santa Fe and Chihuahua trails. Two of the plants mals that were sent back east for study and naming. They he collected, an oak and a mesquite, were later named for were followed by geologists, paleontologists, botanists, him (Dickerman 1985: 167–168). Emory also produced the zoologists, and ornithologists, who were generally part first detailed maps of the region. of military expeditions or railroad surveys. Early photog- Another topographical engineer, Lt. James W. Abert raphers, artists, and map makers, also part of the same (1962), was interested in the flora, fauna, and geology of kind of field parties, provided basic imagery of the land New Mexico. Under Emory’s command, Abert described and its people. These collected specimens, associated sci- the plants and animals on his route of travel along the Rio entific data, and photographs and maps composed a body Grande Valley as far south as Valverde, west to the Rio of knowledge that was subsequently