McGuinness, Sara E. (2011) Grupo Lokito: a practice-based investigation into contemporary links between Congolese and Cuban popular music. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of London http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/14703 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. GRUPO LOKITO A practice-based investigation into contemporary links between Congolese and Cuban popular music Sara E. McGuinness Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2011 School of Oriental and African Studies University of London Declaration for PhD thesis I have read and understood regulation 17.9 of the Regulations for students of the School of Oriental and African Studies concerning plagiarism. I undertake that all the material presented for examination is my own work and has not been written for me, in whole or in part, by any other person. I also undertake that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of another person has been duly acknowledged in the work which I present for examination. SIGNED: ____________________________ DATE: _________________ 2 ABSTRACT There is a longstanding historical and cultural relationship between Congo and Cuba via the slave trade and the ‘return’ of Cuban music to Africa, a relationship that has apparently been very scantily documented. It is acknowledged that Congolese roots are present in Cuban music but there is little musical analysis of the actual elements concerned. This thesis addresses this imbalance. Using a performance-as-research methodology, it charts the formation and experience of the fusion band Grupo Lokito. Through bringing Congolese and Latin musicians together in a performance situation, I explore the ways in which musicians from the two traditions recognise and assimilate each other’s groove. This dissertation investigates whether the historic connections enable contemporary musicians from both worlds to recognise similarities in each other’s music. Also included is a historical overview of the Congolese arrival in Cuba, how Congolese musical practices were preserved and assimilated into Cuban music as well as an overview of the evolution of twentieth-century Congolese music. Existing research has focused on issues such as the return of Cuban music to Congo (Topp Fargion 2004), the emergence of rumba Lingala in the 1950s and 1960s (Kazadi 1970; Stewart 2000), and the subsequent development, in the 1970s and 1980s, of Congolese music away from the Cuban influence (Stewart 2000; Ewens 1994). However, this thesis argues that, rather than diverging from the 1970s onwards as is frequently thought, Congolese and Cuban music retain commonalities that can be recognised by musicians immersed in the two styles. An analysis of the musical structure and instrumentation of well-known Cuban and Congolese songs is included, as well as original compositions by Grupo Lokito, with further audio and video available on the separate CD and video. The accompanying CD Rom details the process of creation of material and outlines relevant musical structures. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS 4 LIST OF FIGURES 9 LIST OF AUDIO EXAMPLES 12 LIST OF VIDEO EXAMPLES 14 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 15 PREFACE 16 TERMINOLOGY 18 T.1 Places and People 18 T.2 Music 19 T.2.1 Cuban Music 19 T.2.2 Congolese Music 19 T.2.3 Transcriptions 20 KEY TO SCORES 22 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 23 1.1 Getting in the Groove 23 1.2 The Background to My Research Project 24 1.2.1 My Research Question 27 1.3 My Position as a Musician and Researcher 28 1.3.1 My Musical Background 28 i. Involvement in Cuban Music 28 ii. Involvement in Congolese Music 28 iii.My Position as a Female Musician 29 iv, Inclusion in Community 31 1.4 My Research Methods 33 1.4.1 Methodology – Action Research 36 1.4.2 Factors that Helped the Momentum of the Project 37 1.4.3 Presentation of My Work 42 1.4.4 Use of Transcriptions 43 1.5 Summary of Chapter 44 4 CHAPTER TWO: THE EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF CUBAN SON 45 2.1 Introduction 45 2.2 The Slave Trade 46 2.2.1 The Foundations of Afro-Cuban Society in Cuba 48 2.2.2 Writings on Slavery in Cuba 50 2.2.3 A Summary of Slavery in Cuba 52 2.3 The Emergence of Cuban Son 53 2.3.1 A Review of Writings on the Development of Cuban Music 54 2.3.2 A Summary of Writings on Cuban Music 56 2.4 The Development of Cuban Son 57 2.4.1 Musical Structure and Organisation 57 i. Interlocking as a Central Feature of Cuban Son 58 ii. Call and Response 60 iii. Percussion Instruments and Playing Styles 60 iv. Linguistic Traits in the Music and Music Terminology 61 2.4.2 The Instrumentation and Development of Son 61 i. The Earth Bow 62 ii. The Bongó 64 iii. The Tres 64 iv. The Marimbula 69 2.4.3 A Summary of Oriente Son 70 2.5 The Effects of the Sugar Boom on Slavery and Musical Development 70 2.5.1 The Roots of Rumba and Afro-Cuban Religious Music and Their Input into Son 70 i. Congolese Musical and Dance Styles: Makuta and Yuka 71 ii. The Development of Rumba 73 iii. Links between Cuban religious and popular Music 75 iv. The Modernisation of Son 76 2.6 The Dissemenation of Son 79 2.7 Further Developments: Arsenio Rodríguez and the Emergence of the Conjunto Format 80 2.8 The Structure of Son 84 2.9 Summary of Chapter 85 5 CHAPTER THREE: THE EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF CONGOLESE POPULAR MUSIC 87 3.1 Introduction 87 3.2 Existing Research into Congolese Music 87 3.3 The Backdrop – Kinshasa 89 3.3.1 The Impact of Radio on Congolese Popular Music 90 3.3.2 The GV Series of Releases and Their Reception in Belgian Congo 91 3.3.3 The Formation and Development of the Congolese Record Industry 92 3.4 The Four Generations of Congolese Popular Music 93 3.4.1 The First Generation – 1940s to 1950s 93 3.4.2 The Second Generation – 1950s to 1970s 94 3.4.3 The Third Generation – 1970s to 1990s 105 i. Mobutu’s Rule and Cultural Authenticity 105 ii. The Hindoubills and Minzoto Ya Zaïre 106 iii. The Third Generation – Zaiko Langa Langa and the Youth Bands 109 3.4.4 The Fourth Generation – Wenge Musica 115 i. Musical Developments in Seben – the Atalaku 115 ii. The Role of the Guitar 117 iii. The Break-up of Wenge Musica – the JB M’Piana/Werrason Divide 119 iv. Class and the School/Village Divide 122 3.5 Similarities Between Fourth-Generation Congolese Music and Cuban Son 123 3.6 Conclusions 129 CHAPTER FOUR: CREATING THE BAND 131 4.1 The UK’s Salsa and Congolese Music Worlds 132 4.1.1 The London Salsa Scene 132 4.1.2 The London Congolese Music Scene 132 i. Issues of Immigration and Legality 133 ii. Politics and Congolese Musicians 134 iii. The Consequences for Grupo Lokito 136 4.2 The Ethos Behind the Formation of Grupo Lokito 136 4.3 Creating a Band 137 4.3.1 The Drummer 139 4.3.2 The Percussionists 142 4.3.3 The Bass Player 142 4.3.4 The Guitarists 142 4.3.5 The Vocalists 143 6 4.3.6 My Instrument – the Keyboards 144 4.3.7 My Position as Female Bandleader 145 4.4 Developing Ways of Working 146 4.4.1 Methods of Presenting and Learning New Material 147 4.4.2 Structure of Rehearsals 148 4.5 The Impact of Social Factors on the Band 149 4.5.1 Immigration and Legal Issues 149 4.5.2 Time-keeping and Reliability 150 4.6 Conclusions 153 CHAPTER FIVE: GRUPO LOKITO 154 5.1 Introduction 154 5.2 A Review of My Research Methods 154 5.2.1 Recording and Productions Values 156 5.3 The Challenges Facing Different Instrumentalists in the Band 158 5.3.1 The Conga Player 159 5.3.2 The Drummer 161 5.3.3 The Bass Player 161 5.3.4 The Guitarists 164 5.3.5 The Keyboards 169 5.3.6 The Singers 176 5.4 The Material Produced by the Group 177 5.4.1 On Va Danser 177 5.4.2 Congo 179 5.4.3 Na Ko Kamwa 181 5.4.4 Générique 182 5.5 Common Ground: Similarities Between the Two Musical Styles as Experienced by the Group 186 5.5.1 Dynamics in the Music 186 5.5.2 Similarities Between Seben and Montuno 187 5.6 Towards a Performance Practice 189 5.7 Audience Response to Grupo Lokito 191 5.8 Summary of Chapter 191 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION 193 6.1 Introduction 193 7 6.2 Reflecting on My Choice of Research Methods 194 6.3 The Musicians’ Experience 195 6.4 Social Issues Impacting on the Project 195 6.5 Developments Within the Band 196 6.6 Outcomes of my Research 196 GLOSSARY 200 BIBLIOGRAPHY 210 LIST OF OTHER SOURCES 223 Interviews Conducted by Author 223 Interviews Conducted by Others 223 Conferences 223 SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY 224 APPENDIX A – CD Rom 227 A.1 CD Rom 227 A.2 Authoring Software 227 A.3 Playing the Presentation 228 APPENDIX B – CD 229 B.1 Track Listing 229 B.2 Musicians 229 APPENDIX C – DVD 230 C.1 Track Listing 230 C.2 Musicians 230 ADDITIONAL MATERIALS CD ROM CD: Musical Examples CD: Grupo Lokito “Esengo Ya Ko Bina”, Malecon Records DVD: Grupo Lokito Live at Band on the Wall (Manchester), 19 May 2011 8 LIST OF FIGURES Figure T.1: Map of the Kongo Kingdom .....................................................................18 Figure T.2: Clave as notated in Cuban music ..............................................................20