BENIN Country correspondent: Roland Adjovi; doctoral student at the University of Paris II, Panth6on-Assas ( 1 ) BASIC FACTS Independence,: 1 August 1960, former French colony, known as Dahomey until 1975 Leader: Mathieu Kerekou, born 1933, president since April 1996 Capital: Porto Novo Other major city: Cotonou (main seaport and international airport) Area: 112 622 kM2 Population: 6,1 mn (1998) Population growth: 2,7% Urbanisation 31 % (1995) Languages: French (official), Kwa-Fon, Yoruba, Gur-Bariba, Hausa, Mande-Busa HD! rank: 147 (1999) Life expectancy at birth: 54 years (1999) Adult literacy rate: 39% (1999) Gross enrolment ratio (all educational levels): 45% ( 1999) GNP: $2 bn (1995) GNP/capita: $370 (1995) GDP (average annual growth rate): 4,1 % ( 1990-95) Foreign debt: $1 646 mn (1995); as % of GNP: 82% Development aid: $256 mn (1998); as % of GNP: 15%; Per capita: $48 Currency: CFA franc Comments: Although Benin produces oil in limited quantities, it is poorly endowed with mineral resources and entirely dependent on exports of agricultural crops, notably cotton, cocoa and palm products. Faced with economic collapse, the government renounced its socialist economic policies and held free elections early in 1991. These elections were a watershed in contemporary African politics. For the first time since the 1960s an incumbent regime on continental Africa was removed through the ballot box, with a peaceful transfer of power to the winner. However, the tables were turned when ousted President Kerekou defeated incumbent President Nicephore Soglo in the presidential election of March 1996. Kerekou also won the presidential elections of March 2001 . (2) COUNTRY REPORT Historical background Pre-co%nial period (to the end of the 19th century): Before colonisation, the current Beninese territory consisted of different kingdoms of which the Abomey or the kingdom of Danhome, appeared to be the most influential with regard to relations with the white population that came from Europe. Power was often absolute. In the kingdom of Danhome the king could decide over life or death of his subjects as illustrated by human sacrifices. Discrimination between the sexes was a social rule. This era was also characterised by slavery, in which the kingdom of Danhome played a major role, being the Slave Coast. The Africans who were sold to Europeans (French, Dutch, Portuguese and British) were often prisoners of war or of raids; sometimes they were the victims of moneylenders or envious courtiers. Once this shameful trade was abolished, the French dominated the region and clashed with King Gbehanzin, who was conquered in 1892 and then deported. "Danhome" became the French "Colony of Dahomey and Dependents" in 1894. Colonial period (1894-1958): This period began in 1894 with the defeat and deportation of King Gbehanzin and brought with it its share of violations of human rights. Discrimination between Africans and Europeans was instituted, making of the former second-class citizens when the colonists deigned to consider them as citizens. This resulted in cruel and inhuman treatment. Forced labour was also a common practice. Finally, we may add the ambiguous relations between colonists and black women: Black women rarely reached the status of legitimate spouse and children from such unions were not considered in paternal succession. Period of the Community (1958-1960J: As a result of a referendum held in September 1958, Dahomians obtained French citizenship and Dahomey became part of the Community. However, only the educated could really benefit from the new situation, because only they understood the advantages that could possibly ensue. For practical reasons, past practices of institutional discrimination started disappearing. Authority was given back to the natives. However, illiteracy was a real obstacle in the path of human rights. Only the literates could hold power without fear, and abused their power like the colonists did before them. Independence 1960-1970: On 1 August 1960, the Republic of Dahomey became a sovereign state that had direct relations of co-operation with France. The new Republic was characterised by unprecedented political instability: coups followed one another until the inauguration of a tripartite presidency in 1970. In 1972, another coup took place, which brought commander Mathieu Kerekou to power. He and his Conseil national opted for scientific socialism founded on Marxist-Leninism and changed the country's name to the People's Republic of Benin on 30 November 1975. This new regime was known for its police state character: underlying terror and suspended freedom. There were classic military violations: disappearances, detention, political assassination, and prisoners of conscience. There was even a witch-hunt: the voodoo cult was prohibited in any form and suspects and practitioners were often imprisoned along with inquisition-like masquerades. 1989-1990: For many reasons, the regime inevitably declined. Firstly, the presidential power dwindled: the president was at the head of a multi-ethnic army riddled with political disputes that were not all favourable towards him. His own guard was undermined by a quest for power, which was manifested by attempts to overthrow the regime (Gominan and Kouyami were the alleged organisers). Also, economic failure ensued. Finally, the single party system permitted the forced politicisation of the Beninese. Beninese had become familiar with political ways and were in search of something better. In 1989 all this materialised in social movements paralysing the country. The political bureau of the party of the Popular Republic of Benin left Marxist-Leninism behind and liberalised the political scene by calling on all Benin citizens to participate in dialogue. The Conference of Active Forces of the Nation was held from 9 to 28 February 1990. It established transitional institutions and set up the foundational texts of the new Benin - the Republic of Benin. Those pupils and students who had their year invalidated resumed classes in March/April 1990 for a 6-month academic year. 1990-present: A new constitution was accepted by a referendum in December 1990. Legislative and presidential elections were held in March 1991. This resulted in defeat for President Mathieu Kerekou and his party - the first time that a head of state in mainland Africa had been voted out of office. Nicephore Soglo, prime minister of the transition, attained and kept the highest office in the land for five years. In March 1996, Mathieu Kerekou resumed his post under these new circumstances and in coalition with parties who opposed the outgoing president. It was a trial of strength between Soglo and the electoral .