APPROACHES IN POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY UNIT IV, TOPIC II (A) HISTORICAL BACKGROUND • Until the end of 1970s, optimism was considered to be a sign of immaturity and weakness. • In “Future of an Illusion”, Freud (1928) treated optimism as a benevolent father like God who would reward us in the afterlife if we controlled our aggressive and sexual instincts. Which he said was an illusion necessary for civilization. • Matlin and Stang ( 1978) in “The Pollyanna Principle” showed that people’s thinking processes were optimistic. They viewed themselves more positively than negatively except when they were anxious or depressed. • Tiger (1979) in “Optimism: The Biology of Hope”, argued that the capacity to think in an optimistic way was a naturally selected characteristics of of our species which evolved when we developed the capacity to reflect on our future. APPROACHES IN POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY • Three research traditions have thrown considerable light on how and why people take a positive view of the world. These traditions focus on” Ø Positive illusions and self-deception; Ø Optimism; Ø Hope. POSITIVE ILLUSIONS Shelly Taylor (1989), summarized research which showed that most people, especially, “healthy people, are biased towards viewing themselves in an optimistic way” Human thought is distinguished by a robust positive bias. That is, our minds are designed to think in positive rather than realistic or negative ways. There are three main ways in which people see themselves in a more positive light than is warranted by the facts of the situation, or other peoples’ views of the situation: First, they see their past behavior, personal attributes and self as a person in an enhanced light. That is, they experience the illusion of self-enhancement. Second, they have an unrealistic sense of personal control and an exaggerated and unfounded belief that they can make things turn out better rather than worse; but are never responsible for bad things that happen to them. Third, they have an unfounded sense of optimism that the future will be rosier than the facts suggest it will. That is, they believe that it will hold more opportunities for good things to happen rather than adversity, stress and chaos. Most people are not aware of these positive illusions, mainly because the illusions work so well that we do not become aware of their positive nature. People avoid engaging in positive illusions that can be easily disconfirmed. SELF-DECEPTION To maintain a positive view of the self and the world, results from laboratory and field studies show that we use a variety of defenses and self- deceptive strategies to manage negative information (Taylor, 1989; Taylor and Brown, 1988, 1994). This negative information which is contrary to a positive world view includes the facts: Ø Our talents and attributes are broadly speaking normal, not exceptional. Ø We have limited control over an unpredictable and chaotic world and over our own impulses, emotions, thoughts and actions; Ø Our future is bleak. Our future is bleak insofar as it entails many losses including: the loss of youth and vitality; loss of health; loss of intellectual abilities and talents; loss of valued friendships; loss of work role; and inevitably our future entails our own deaths and the deaths of everyone we hold dear. Ø Defense mechanisms and positive illusions are the self-deceptive strategies we use to manage this awful information, which is contrary to an optimistic world view. Self-Deception: Denial and Repression Denial and repression are two widely used defense mechanisms which help us to maintain a positive or optimistic world view. Denial involves not acknowledging the existence or meaning of threatening or stressful events in the external world. Repression involves not acknowledging unacceptable aggressive or sexual impulses in a person’s inner world. Shelly Taylor (1989) argues that defenses like denial and repression are maladaptive because they distort reality in comparison to self- deceptive positive illusions. In denial, one part of the brain becomes dissociated from another part that ‘knows’ the denied or distorted facts. Self-deceptive positive illusions, in contrast, allow people to know negative information about the self and manage this in a way that preserves a positive view of the self. Extensive research has shown that positive illusions involve the cognitive processes of selective attention, benign forgetting, maintaining pockets of incompetence and maintaining negative self-schemas (Taylor and Brown, 1988, 1994). Self Deception: Selective Attention and Benign Forgetting Selective attention involves noticing positive things and screening out negative things about ourselves, that is, filtering information in a biased way so that only positive news is registered and encoded. Benign forgetting is a process where negative information about the self is not easily recalled. In contrast, positive information that supports a positive view of the self is recalled in considerable detail. SELF DECEPTION: POCKETS OF INCOMPETENCE Negative information about the self can also be managed by having clearly defined pockets of incompetence and accepting that in these areas one has few skills, for example saying ‘I’m not good with numbers’ but still considers oneself highly intelligent. • . We then ring- fence these areas off as peripheral to the essential core of the self which is viewed as having predominantly positive attributes. • By ring-fencing pockets of incompetence and not using information about our performance in these domains in evaluating our self- worth, self-esteem is preserved. SELF DECEPTION: NEGATIVE SELF- SCHEMA • Self-schemas may be developed around characteristics like being shy or overweight. A negative self-schema is an organized set of beliefs that allows us to anticipate situations in which negative information is likely to be received about the self and then to develop strategies for dealing with these, For example, announcing that we are shy and so do not talk much. • A negative self-schema allows a person to put a boundary around a negative personal attribute, to anticipate situations that may be relevant to it or not and to plan for these. Negative self-schemas may also protect self-esteem by allowing a person to attribute any negative evaluation of the self to the negative characteristic at the core of the negative self-schema. • e.g. ‘I didn’t do well in the exam because my shyness prevented me from asking questions in class, and only those who ask questions get good exam results.’ DEVELOPMENT OF POSITIVE ILLUSIONS • Positive illusions develop as a result of a parenting style where children are given information by their parents and encouraged to make choices within the context of a warm relationship, with clear behavioral limits. • Permissive or authoritarian parenting or parenting that is very cold does not facilitate the development of positive illusions. • Positive self-perception begins early in life. Pre-schoolers see themselves as competent and popular and this tendency to have a positive view of the self continues throughout life, although its strength diminishes gradually. • This view of the self as good is partially determined by the way memory works. Memory is egocentric. Furthermore the information to which we selectively attend and remember is determined by our self- schemas, that is, beliefs about the type of people that we are and our unique attributes. • For example, a person whose self-schema includes the belief ‘I am athletic’ may remember ‘I ran quickly and was not out of breath”. • Self-schemas determine which aspects of a situation we attended to, and then our impressions of the situation are reinforced by that very information. • Most people see themselves as responsible for good things such as passing an exam or helping someone and not responsible for bad things such as failure or hurting others, because good things like success and kindness are what we intend to do and bad things like failure and cruelty are rarely intended. • People also exaggerate the degree to which they are responsible for good outcomes in joint ventures. They take more than their share of the credit. When you ask husbands and wives who does the most housework, the sum usually exceeds 100 per cent. • People who evaluate themselves positively hold others in high esteem also and so are more popular with others. This is true across the lifecycle from pre-school to old age (Mruk, 1999). • People who view themselves as having positive attributes, who are optimistic about their future and who believe they can control important events in their lives work longer and harder because they expect a positive outcome from their work. • When they confront an obstacle they keep trying various different solutions until they succeed, because they believe eventually they will. Thus their work style is characterized by strong motivation to succeed, a high level of persistence at challenging tasks, more effective performance and greater overall success. • The need for control and the perception of the self as capable of controlling the environment is present from birth. E.g., how a child gets bored of an item very quickly. • For children, moderately novel situations are more stimulating and interesting than very familiar ones or situations that are completely unfamiliar. Thus, children like environments that contain new challenges that are just beyond the limits of their competence, not one that contains very easy or very hard tasks and challenges. • Most adults believe that the world is controllable. We believe that with hard work, careful planning, and the right tools, technology and science, there is little that cannot be accomplished. We believe that natural disasters, diseases, social and economic problems, and war are all solvable problems. • We believe that we succeed through effort and fail through laziness; so success is a sign of effort and failure is a sign of laziness. • In his book Denial of Death, Ernest Becker (1973) argues that our belief in the controllability and orderliness of the world protects us from constantly having to face the reality of our mortality, that we all live one step away from death.