BEYOND APPEARANCES: TRANSNATIONALISM AND THE REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN BOLLYWOOD CINEMA by ASMA AYOB submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject THEORY OF LITERATURE at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR M KEURIS NOVEMBER 2014 Student number: 05920523 I declare that Beyond Appearances: Transnationalism and the representation of women in Bollywood Cinema is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. ________________________ _____________________ SIGNATURE DATE (Ms Asma Ayob) Preface The idea that a doctoral study is a long and lonely effort is a myth. From my experience over these past couple of years, I have realised that this process is fuelled by family, generous colleagues, and a committed supervisor… I would like to thank my father for being the visionary who always encouraged me to pursue knowledge and for never letting me give up; my mother for always providing warmth in the home; my children for their unwavering faith in me; and my brother and sisters for always accommodating my needs above their own. And I cannot forget the three angels who worked tirelessly on my editorial revisions, Tasiyah, Ambreen and Ameera. I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Marisa Keuris for guiding this study to completion. I am grateful for her continuous support and encouragement throughout the period of my research and I sincerely believe that her guidance and attention to detail has enhanced the quality of my work substantially. I would like to thank my mentor, Professor Oliphant for taking the time to talk with me about my research and for his little suggestions which have impacted on my final work. My colleagues in the Department have all invested moments of their time encouraging me to complete my study, and for that I am grateful. I also appreciate the constant support of our librarian, Mrs. Hleziphi Napaai. Finally, I am grateful for the intellectual platform provided to me by UNISA, which has allowed me to grow as both a person and an academic. i Abstract Bollywood cinema continues to evolve. As a result, it has become a transnational/cultural role player for Indian audiences worldwide. There has always been a strong link between Bollywood cinema and Indian society. Over the years, it has contributed to the dialogue on women’s roles and position in Indian society. In the past, Bollywood filmmakers were faithful to representations of women who were bound by patriarchal structures in the sense that they were expected to be loyal to ancient Indian traditions and belief-systems. Based on the increase in Indian migration, contemporary Bollywood filmmakers are now catering to the demands of the Indian diaspora and therefore, a more global market. The impact of transnationalism on the representation of women in many Bollywood films has further added to the creation of open spaces for the Bollywood heroine. In this regard, the films of auteur director Karan Johar are valuable because they provide audiences with material that suggests re-thinking patriarchal structures in a transnational world. This study will examine the representation of women in three selected films of Johar within the framework of feminist theory (Indian context). The impact that transnationalism has had on the Indian diaspora and the manner in which this translates into the narratives and representations of female characters in Bollywood films will be discussed. Key terms: Bollywood, transnationalism, auteur, Johar, representations, women, Indian diaspora, patriarchy, nationalism, feminism. ii Table of Contents Preface......................................................................................................................................... i Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... ii Chapter 1: ................................................................................................................................... 1 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Rationale ....................................................................................................................... 5 1.2 Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................... 9 1.3 Theoretical Framework and Literature Review .......................................................... 10 1.4 Methodology ............................................................................................................... 12 Chapter 2: ................................................................................................................................. 14 2 Anglo-American Feminism: a brief overview .................................................................. 14 2.1 Early Feminist Theory ................................................................................................ 16 2.1.1 Anglo-American women and patriarchy ........................................................... 16 2.1.2 Femininity versus Education............................................................................. 19 2.2 Twentieth Century Feminist Thought ......................................................................... 24 2.2.1 Cultural Climate ................................................................................................ 26 2.2.2 Consequences of second wave feminism .......................................................... 33 2.3 Womens’ image .......................................................................................................... 40 2.4 Feminist film theory ................................................................................................... 44 2.4.1 Psychoanalysis and Cinema .............................................................................. 46 2.4.2 The Identification Process................................................................................. 46 2.4.3 Auteur and Intent .............................................................................................. 50 2.4.4 Feminism and the male gaze ............................................................................. 52 2.5 Concluding thoughts ................................................................................................... 55 Chapter 3: ................................................................................................................................. 61 3 Feminist theory within the Indian context......................................................................... 61 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 61 3.2 The Indian diaspora .................................................................................................... 65 3.3 Ancient India .............................................................................................................. 68 3.3.1 Traditional Structures........................................................................................ 70 3.3.2 Indian Myths/Mythology .................................................................................. 71 iii 3.3.3 Personal Law ..................................................................................................... 74 3.4 Cultural Revival .......................................................................................................... 80 3.4.1 Transition from the Private to the Public Sphere .............................................. 84 3.4.2 National Identity / ‘Imaginary Paradigm’ ......................................................... 87 3.4.3 The Indian / Western Dichotomy ...................................................................... 90 3.5 Mahatma Gandhi and Women in India ....................................................................... 93 3.5.1 Paradoxical Ideals ............................................................................................. 94 3.5.2 Spheres of Expertise ......................................................................................... 96 3.5.3 Embracing Gandhian principles ........................................................................ 97 3.6 India: A Postcolonial Space ........................................................................................ 99 3.6.1 Postcolonial Feminist Discourse ..................................................................... 102 3.6.2 Spivak and the ‘notion’ of the Subaltern ........................................................ 104 3.6.3 The Subaltern Has No Voice .......................................................................... 105 3.6.4 Beyond Subalternity........................................................................................ 109 3.7 Concluding thoughts ................................................................................................. 110 Chapter 4 ................................................................................................................................ 117 4 Bollywood Cinema: A Transnational/Cultural Role Player ............................................ 117 4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................