The Fifth Great Chinese Invention: Examination and State Power in Twentieth Century China and Taiwan By Shiu On Chu B.A., The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2004 M.A., National Tsing Hua University, 2008 A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the Department of History at Brown University Providence, Rhode Island May 2018 © Copyright 2018 by Shiu On Chu i This dissertation by Shiu On Chu is accepted in its present form by the Department of History as satisfying the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Date ___________________ ____________________________ Rebecca Nedostup, Advisor Recommended to the Graduate Council Date ___________________ ____________________________ Cynthia Brokaw, Reader Date ___________________ _____________________________ Tracy Steffes, Reader Approved by the Graduate Council Date ___________________ _____________________________ Andrew Campbell, Dean of the Graduate School ii Curriculum Vitae Shiu On Chu was born in Hong Kong. He obtained his B.A. and M.A. degrees in Chinese intellectual history from the Chinese University of Hong Kong and National Tsing Hua University in Taiwan. In 2011, he enrolled as a graduate student in Brown’s history department. Chu’s research has been published in T’oung Pao, Chinese Studies, and the Journal of Chinese Studies. He is currently teaching at Hamilton College, Clinton NY. iii Acknowledgements This dissertation is a historically informed critique of the imbalanced power dynamic between the educators the educated in twentieth century Sinophone societies. It attributes such dynamic to specific decisions that shaped institutions of testing, rather than an abstract modern “structure” of power and surveillance. This approach not only enables us to hold the makers of the unjust rules accountable; but also reveals the possibility that institutions of assessment and distribution of social resource can be improved. During my research and writing, a belief in the possibility of betterment prevents me from cynically dismissing all institutions as machines enslaving minds and bodies. Such belief is not based solely on historical knowledge, but also the fact that I am surrounded by individuals who have treated me generously and sincerely. I am indebted to my dissertation advisor Rebecca Nedostup, who guided me into the fascinating field of modern Chinese history. She has also shaped the way I approach the “rivers and lakes” in the history profession. From writing proposals for small grants and write-up grants to post-docs and job applications, she always provides timely advices on how to present my work, and also myself, honestly and effectively. Cynthia Brokaw opened to me the door of Department of History at Brown. Since then, she has spent countless hours in reading my writings, ranging from response essays to dissertation chapters, and consistently provided her insightful comments and feedbacks. For me, they are teachers of both knowledge and life. At Brown, my research is also nurtured by a community of outstanding historians from their respective fields. Tracy Steffes read drafts of this project from the stage of the prospectus to the dissertation chapters. Her expertise in state and education in the US helped me to situate my work in fundamental questions regarding power and knowledge production. Kerry Smith not only laid the foundation of my knowledge of Japanese history, but also provided valuable iv advices on my development as a teacher of history. Seth Rockman’s classes on history of capitalism enabled me to put my research and teaching in transnational and interdisciplinary contexts. Robert Self and Tara Nummedal generously shared their experiences of historical writing and professional development. In the positions of director of graduate studies and department chair, they ran the Department as an institution which served its members’ pursuits of knowledge with both efficiency and warmth. This is also true during Professors Brokaw and Nedostups’ terms as chair and DGS. Moreover, such success will not be possible without the amazing staff members Julissa Bautista, Mary Beth Bryson and Cherrie Guerzon. This project benefited enormously from my undergraduate and master studies in Hong Kong and Taiwan. I am honored to have worked with Chu Hung-lam, Chang Yung-tong and Wang Fan-sen, who are leading scholars in late imperial intellectual history. As a historian who have produced field-defining works in both late imperial and modern periods, Prof. Wang’s encouraging words had been crucial in the early stage of the current project, when I doubted if I could shift from the late imperial field to the modern field. Earlier in the 2000s, I had the chance to take classes of late Chan Hok-lam and Hsiao Chi-ching, which first sparked my interest in the late imperial examination system. The seeds of the present project were sowed a decade ago. Colleagues at Hamilton College, Thomas Wilson and Kevin Grant in particular, have been supportive in my transition from a graduate student to a teacher. I am also grateful to Jennifer Ambrose, who kindly worked with me on the editing of this dissertation. My work is also encouraged by the colleagues in the field of Chinese history. Robert Culp has read part of the dissertation and provided extremely helpful suggestions on the framing of the argument. In a 2017 AAS Panel with Hilde de Weerdt, Lawrence Zhang, Yifei Huang and Liang Chen, I was exposed to innovative approaches to fundamental questions regarding the examination tradition v in China. Support from long-time friends Tang Kowk-leong, Shi Chunyi and Ben Tsang Wing Ma enables me to endure the challenges in a profession with increasingly uncertain prospects. We understand our rewards and struggles as grad students and junior scholars. I am also thankful to friends at Brown, especially He Tai-sen, Chang Yu-chi, Wu Kuan-ju and other members of the TGSA, who filled my years in Providence with pleasant memories. As a historian concerning with the institutional foundation of knowledge production, I wholeheartedly appreciate the supports on research I have received for this project. Chen Yunqian at Nanjing University generously wrote in support of my research at the Second Historical Archives. Chan Liangshou helped me to access the wealth of digitalized materials at the Academia Sinica. I am also thankful for the help of archivists and librarians at the Academia Historica and KMT Party Archive. For my research trips, I received funding from institutions at Brown—including the Department of History, the Joukowsky Summer Research Award, the International Office and the Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs—as well as the American Historical Association. In the final stages of this project, a five-month fellowship at the National Central Library and the Chiang Ching-kuo Dissertation Fellowship enabled me to focus on writing. All these supports are indispensable for the completion of this dissertation. I am fortunate to live in a family that appreciates my work as a scholar, even when I doubt if I can withstand the challenges in the profession. Over the years, my mother Inney Ho has never stopped from guiding me with her wisdom and love. Lastly, I would like to thank my wife Ruei-pu. Together we (and also Xianxian) have embarked on wildly idealistic adventures; and confronted the brutality of disillusionment. What remains unchanged is her unlimited love, support, and constant inspirations in my everyday life. This dissertation is dedicated to her. vi Table of Contents Curriculum Vitae ........................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iv Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. viii Introduction: The End of Keju and the Birth of Modern Chinese Examination ..............................1 Chapter 1: Don't Corrupt the Students with Money and Status: The Stigmatization of Rewards in the Late Qing Education Reforms (1895-1911) ......................14 Chapter 2: Lukewarm Objectivity: The Standardized Test Movement in Modern China (1920- 1937) ............................................................................................................................................47 Chapter 3: Creating Legitimate but Defective Examinees: Examination Orthodoxy and Politics of Bureaucratic Reform under the Nationalist Regime (1928-1947) .............................................79 Chapter 4: Huikao (Centralized Graduation Examination, 1932-1957): State-School Cooperation and the Separation of Assessment and Resource Allocation .......................................................123 Chapter 5: Civil Examinations under the 1947 Constitution and the Ideology of Competition in the Republic of China in Taiwan (1947-1992) ............................................................................154 Conclusion: Examination and State Power in Modern China .....................................................191 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................209