Riang’a et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:29 DOI 10.1186/s13002-017-0157-8 RESEARCH Open Access Food beliefs and practices among the Kalenjin pregnant women in rural Uasin Gishu County, Kenya Roselyter Monchari Riang’a1,2*, Jacqueline Broerse2 and Anne Kisaka Nangulu1,3 Abstract Background: Understanding food beliefs and practices is critical to the development of dietary recommendations, nutritional programmes, and educational messages. This study aimed to understand the pregnancy food beliefs and practices and the underlying reasons for these among the contemporary rural Kalenjin communities of Uasin Gishu County, Kenya. Methods: Through semi-structured interviews, data was collected from 154 pregnant and post-natal Kalenjin women about restricted and recommended foods, and why they are restricted or recommended during pregnancy. Respondents were purposively selected (based on diversity) from those attending Maternal and Child Health (MCH) care in 23 rural public health facilities. Key informant interviews (n = 9) with traditional Birth Attendants (TBA) who were also herbalists, community health workers, and nursing officers in charge of MCH were also conducted. Quantitative data was analysed using SPSS software. Data from respondents who gave consent to be tape recorded (n = 42) was transcribed and qualitatively analysed using MAXQDA software. Results: The restriction of animal organs specifically the tongue, heart, udder and male reproductive organs, meat and eggs, and the recommendation of traditional green vegetables and milk was reported by more than 60% of the respondents. Recommendation of fruits, traditional herbs, ugali (a dish made of maize flour, millet flour, or Sorghum flour, sometimes mixed with cassava flour), porridge and liver, and restriction of avocadoes and oily food were reported by more than 20% of the respondents. The reasons for observing these dietary precautions were mainly fears of: big foetuses, less blood, lack of strength during birth, miscarriages or stillbirths, and maternal deaths as well as child’s colic and poor skin conditions after birth. Conclusion: Pregnancy food beliefs were widely known and practised mainly to protect the health of the mother and child, and ensuring successful pregnancy outcome. Given the deep-rooted nature of the beliefs, it is advisable that when nutritious foods are restricted, nutritional interventions should rather search for alternative sources of nutrition which are available and considered to be appropriate for pregnancy. On the other hand, nutritional advice that does not address these health concerns and assumptions that underlie successful pregnancy and delivery is unlikely to be effective. Keywords: Food beliefs, Taboos, Maternal and child health, Nutritional interventions, Pregnancy complications, Kalenjin, Kenya * Correspondence: [email protected]; [email protected] 1Moi University, School of Arts and Social Sciences, P.O. Box 3900-30100, Eldoret, Kenya 2Athena Institute, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s). 2017 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Riang’a et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:29 Page 2 of 16 Background [15, 16], maintenance of social norms, morals, group Undernutrition is a serious global health problem which cohesion and identity [17] and protection of human has not yet been sufficiently addressed. Approximately health [18, 19]. Food taboos and restrictions are par- 795 million people are undernourished, mostly Low and ticularly strictly observed during pregnancy as preg- Middle-Income Countries (LMICs) [1]. Nutrition is most nant women are considered to be more vulnerable critical during pregnancy because poor nutrition puts and hence what they eat must be regulated to protect the both mother and baby at risk. Poorly nourished expect- foetus and reduce the occurrence of complicated labour ant mothers are at a higher risk of having a preterm and delivery [19–25]. Other studies, however, indicate that birth, and giving birth to babies with low birth-weight failure to make use of available food resources in a given and Intra Uterine Growth Restrictions (IUGR); while ecological zone due to taboos and beliefs is one of the also facing multiple threats to their own health and major causes of malnutrition [26, 27]. This indicates that survival [2, 3]. Babies born underweight, pre-term or more research needs to be carried out on this crucial area. with IUGR have increased risk of neonatal death. A In Kenya, only a few studies have concentrated on the number of those who survive these conditions may nexus between pregnancy, culture and nutrition. Boerma develop into stunted adults who will, in turn, give birth and Mati [28] and Oniango and Komokoti [29] are among to stunted children, representing a vicious cycle of nutri- the few that have researched this subject. They established tional problems [4]. Nearly half (45%) of global deaths that pregnant women are restricted from eating certain among children under five are attributed to undernutri- food items such as liver, intestines, kidney, milk, sweet po- tion, amounting to 3 million deaths each year [5]. In tatoes, sugar, salt, eggs and bananas because these foods Kenya, 35% of children under five have been found to be are believed to cause obstructed labour. The same norms, stunted with higher levels of stunting in rural areas [6]. however, encourage pregnant women to take certain food Furthermore, 56% of infant deaths in Kenya occur items such as cow’s blood, sour milk and lots of water, and during the first month of life and 5% of children do not to vomit following a heavy meal. These norms are de- survive to the age of 5 years [7]. signed to keep the baby small at birth and thus ensure safe In LMICs, socio-economic factors (especially con- delivery for both mother and baby. sumer income) have been associated with inadequate This clearly indicates the existence of food beliefs re- nutritional status and household food security [8–10]. lated to pregnancy in Kenya. There are 42 ethnic groups However, a study undertaken in Ethiopia established that in Kenya with varying and changing nutritional tradi- some of the highest prevalence rates of malnutrition tions and taboos which indicates the need to develop an were found in the food-surplus regions of the country, elaborate body of knowledge concerning diverse cultural indicating that food availability is only one component dietary practices during pregnancy as a basis for contex- of food security and that it does not necessarily ensure tualised understanding and effective interventions. This adequate nutritional status [11]. Similarly in Kenya, is a particularly important issue in areas with high levels although 89% of land is arid and semi-arid [12], even the of child stunting, such as the area under study. Lack of arable regions still experience nutritional deficiencies. appropriate knowledge on culturally prescribed nutri- Uasin Gishu County for instance, where this study was tional taboos and beliefs can have a powerful impact on conducted, has climatic conditions and soil type which the outcome of malnutrition relief efforts or prevention are generally suitable for livestock keeping and food crop campaigns and interventions [20]. This study investi- production with an average rural land holding of 5 hect- gates food belief practices among the contemporary ares, hence it is commonly known as the country’s food Kalenjin community of rural Uasin Gishu County. The basket [13]. However, the nutritional status of Uasin specific objectives were to investigate the various food Gishu County is worse than the national norm. Some beliefs during pregnancy, and examine the underlying 11.5% of the Uasin Gishu population is underweight reasons. The findings of this study will provide a basis compared to the national level (11.0%) while 31.2% of for developing culturally appropriate nutritional inter- children are stunted compared to 26.0% nationally [7]. ventions and empowerment programmes with a view to The UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Food-Care Health providing effective nutritional counselling targeting conceptual framework lists cultural norms, taboos and pregnant women. This may improve birth outcomes and beliefs as one factor that may cause malnutrition [14]. long-term quality of life. Meyer-Rochow [15] for instance, established that food items within a given ecological zone may be considered Methods inedible due to “nutritional taboos.” Food beliefs and Theoretical framework (symbolic interactionist theory (SIT)) taboos are a global phenomenon that are intended to The research findings of this study were interpreted and have a positive effect to the practising community in- understood through the symbolic interactionist perspec- cluding: conservation of a scarce or sacred resource tive