INVESTIGATING THE CAMPUS CYCLING ENVIRONMENT OF A LARGE SOUTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY FROM AN ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE by MARGARET M. SHIELDS ANGELIA PASCHAL, COMMITTEE CHAIR STUART USDAN MELANIE TUCKER BRIAN GORDON JAMES LEEPER A DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Health Sciences in the Graduate School of The University of Alabama TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA 2015 Copyright Margaret M. Shields 2015 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ABSTRACT Cycling is an effective method to address physical, psychological, and environmental health. As an alternative mode of transport, it can also be more economical compared to motor vehicles. Despite these benefits, cyclists run a moderately high risk of being injured on the road or in a vehicular accident. According to a survey completed by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 88% of cyclists felt most threatened by motorists on the road and 37% perceived uneven walkways and roadways were a threat to personal safety. The purpose of this study was to examine college student perceptions of safety and factors contributing to campus cycling from an ecological perspective. Intrapersonal, interpersonal, and institutional factors associated with safety and campus cycling were assessed as well as how they interacted with each other. A survey was developed and administered to students on a large southeastern public university. The sample of 356 participants indicated that certain intrapersonal level factors were predictors of cycling, including bike specific issues (e.g., concerns about general bike maintenance) and personal appearance (e.g., looking “silly while wearing a helmet). Interpersonal cycling factors (e.g., concerns about interacting with motor vehicle drivers) were not statistically significant. However, institutional cycling factors, including institutional barriers (e.g., busy roads) and institutional facilitators (e.g., establishing more bike lanes and covered parking), were predictors of cycling. ii The study findings provide guidance to university stakeholders about what specific factors are prioritized and deemed more likely to facilitate cycling among students. Cycling has been found to be very beneficial, as it has been associated with reduced traffic, improved parking, and better ease of transport on campus. Therefore, these suggestions have implications for environmental and structural changes, policy development, and program planning. iii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my nieces and nephews. I hope this hard work inspires them to believe nothing is impossible. “Congratulations! Today is your day. You’re off to great places! You’re off and away! And will you succeed? Yes! You will indeed (98¾% guaranteed). Kid, you’ll move mountains!” -Dr. Seuss iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS a Cronbach’s index of internal consistency ACHA American College Health Association ACSM American College of Sports Medicine BAG Bike Advisory Group BFU Bicycle Friendly University CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CI Confidence Interval f Frequency HBM Health Belief Model LAB League of American Bicyclists NHTSA National Highway Transportation Administration OR Odds ratio: an association between an exposure and an outcome p Probability associated with the occurrence under the null hypothesis of a value as extreme as or more extreme than the observed value SEM Social Ecological Model UA University of Alabama v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS “The journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step,” (Japanese Proverb) and the journey of a dissertation begins with a single word. I am first and foremost thankful for my husband, Kevin, who kept reminding that I would make it through and continually supported me. Second, to my family (both blood and adopted) that cheered me on, called me, and took me out for meals. Every bit is remembered and dear to my heart. I am grateful for all of the little voices in my life that cheered me on during this chapter. From my nieces, Nana and Grandpa, athletes, students, and friends who spoke words of comfort and love. It takes a village to raise a child as well as complete a degree and they are the best! Finally, I am so thankful for every 9:30 phone call from dad after I got off work. Whether it was words of encouragement or about the weather, it was always nice knowing that he is always there for me. To my committee chair, Dr. Paschal has been my mentor and friend in this journey. “It’s not where you go, its who you meet along the way!” I am grateful for all of the help along the way and words of encouragement. Every meeting we had, I came out feeling a little better about the process. To Dr. Tucker, thank you for helping me from day one and reminding me that I am good enough to be in the program. To Dr. Leeper, thank you for helping me sort out my promiscuous stats. To Drs. Usdan and Bolland, you were encouragement, direction and support along the way. Dr. Gordon, thank you for stepping in and helping when I needed it! I am grateful to all of you! vi CONTENTS ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION ....................................................................................................... iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................. x 1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1 a. Purpose & Significance ...................................................................................... 2 b. Implications ......................................................................................................... 3 c. Research Questions ............................................................................................. 5 d. Assumptions ........................................................................................................ 5 e. Delimitations ....................................................................................................... 6 f. Limitations ........................................................................................................... 7 g. Terminology ........................................................................................................ 8 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE .......................................................................... 11 a. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 11 b. Bikeability ........................................................................................................ 12 c. History of the Bicycle ...................................................................................... 13 d. The Bikeable Environment .............................................................................. 14 e. Population that Currently Cycles ...................................................................... 20 f. Health ................................................................................................................. 21 vii g. Physical Activity ............................................................................................... 22 h. Healthy Campus 2020 ....................................................................................... 25 i. Health Statistics ................................................................................................. 26 j. How Cycling Improves University Campuses ................................................... 30 k. Challenges to Cycling on Campus .................................................................... 34 l. Current Research on Cycling ............................................................................. 42 m. Social Ecological Model .................................................................................. 46 n. Health Belief Model .......................................................................................... 50 o. Purpose .............................................................................................................. 52 3. METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................... 53 a. Institutional Review Board Approval ............................................................... 53 b. Participant Recruitment .................................................................................... 53 c. Data Collection .................................................................................................. 55 d. Survey Instrument ............................................................................................. 55 e. Piloting the Survey ............................................................................................ 62 f. Survey Completion ............................................................................................ 62 g. Data Analysis .................................................................................................... 63 h. Research Questions ........................................................................................... 63 i. Summary ...........................................................................................................