University of Dundee DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Exploring Environmental Justice in Small-Scale Hydroelectricity Power Plant (HPP) Development in Rural Turkey Sayan, Ramazan Caner Award date: 2016 Link to publication General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. 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Sep. 2021 EXPLORING ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE IN SMALL-SCALE HYDROELECTRICITY POWER PLANT (HPP) DEVELOPMENT IN RURAL TURKEY Ramazan Caner Sayan PhD Thesis University of Dundee, May 2016 i TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Illustrations ………………………………………………………………………vi Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………………vii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………ix Declarations……………………………………………………………………………..xii Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………xiv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………1 1.1 Background Information……………………………………………………………3 1.2 Research Questions…………………………………………………………………10 1.3 Aims and Objectives………………………………………………………………..11 1.4 Justification and Motivations……………………………………………………….11 1.5 Structure of the Research…………………………………………………………...13 CHAPTER 2: UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE, POLITICAL ECOLOGY AND MODERNISATION OF TURKEY………………………………..15 2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………15 2.2 Introducing Environmental Justice: Definitions, Scope, Explanatory Frameworks and Its Evolution……………………………………………………………………………15 2.2.1 Environmental Justice Movement in the US: Early History of Development of the Concept of Environmental Justice……………………….………………………19 2.2.2 Conceptual Foundations of Environmental Justice I: Early Environmental Justice Literature…………………………………………………………………………….22 2.2.3 Explaining the Roots of Environmental Inequalities in the Early Literature: Environmental Racism and Market Dynamics of Real Estates………………………24 2.2.4 Conceptual Foundations of Environmental Justice II: Evolution of the Environmental Justice Concept, General Features of Critical Contributions to Environmental Justice Studies………………………………………………………..28 2.2.5 Explaining the Roots of Environmental Inequalities, Focussing on Broader Processes: The Example of Political Ecology…………………………32 2.3 Summary……………………………………………………………………………40 CHAPTER 3: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF MAKING ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE CLAIMS AND ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AS A MULTI- DIMENSIONAL CONCEPT…………………………………………………………..42 3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………42 ii 3.2 Making Environmental Justice Claims…………………………………………….43 3.3 Justice in the Making Environmental Justice Claims: Schlosberg’s Multi-dimensional Environmental Justice……………………………………………………………………..48 3.3.1 Justice as Distribution………………..…………………………………………48 3.3.1.1 Defining Social Justice: Justice as Distribution……………………………48 3.3.1.2 Distributive Justice in Environmental Justice Literature…………………..55 3.3.2 Going beyond the Distribution: Justice as Recognition………………………..62 3.3.2.1 Justice as Recognition……………………………………………………...62 3.3.2.2 Recognition on Environmental Justice Literature………………………….64 3.3.3 Going beyond the Distribution: Justice as Participation (Procedural Justice)…70 3.3.3.1 Participative Justice in Social Justice Studies……………………………...70 3.3.3.2 Participative Justice in Environmental Justice Studies….…………………74 3.4 Identification of the Research Gaps and Conclusion……………………………….81 CHAPTER 4: OPERATIONALIZATION OF THE RESEARCH, METHOLODOLOGY AND METHODS……………………………………………..85 4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..85 4.2 Introducing Qualitative Methodology and Ontological and Epistemological Considerations……………………………………………………………………………85 4.3 Research Technique: Case Studies and Case Selections…………………………...88 4.3.1 Introducing the Case Study Areas: Fethiye…………………………………….91 4.3.1.1 Location and Population……………………………………………………92 4.3.1.2 Geography and Climate………………………………………………….....92 4.3.1.3 Hydrology of the Streams of the Research: Eşen, Kargı and Yuvarlakçay Streams……………………………………………………………..……………………..93 4.3.2 General Features of the Study Sites……………………………………………96 4.3.2.1 Saklıkent HPP Site……………………..…………………………………..96 4.3.2.2 Söğütlüdere HPP…………………………………………………………...98 4.3.2.3 Kargı-Yanıklar HPP………………………………………………………..99 4.3.2.4 Yuvarlakçay HPP……………………………..…………………………..101 4.4 Substantiating Conceptual Framework and Introducing the Methods…………….103 4.4.1 Pre-Field Visit and Post-Field Visit Desktop Study……………………………108 iii 4.4.1.1 Document Analysis……………………………………………………….109 4.4.1.2 Mass Media/Social Media Analysis………………………………………111 4.4.1.3 Discourse Analysis………………………………..………………………113 4.4.2 Field Visit…………………………………………………………………….114 4.4.2.1 Interviews…………………………………………………………………115 4.4.2.2 Group Interviews………………………………………………………….118 4.4.2.3 Observation……………………………………………………………… 119 4.5 Research Scope and Limitations…………………………………………………...120 4.6 Summary…………………………………………………………………………...121 CHAPTER 5: PROCESS OF THE FORMATION OF SOCIO-ENVIRONMENTAL (IN)EQUALITIES IN TURKEY’S HPP PROCESS: DECONSTRUCTION OF TURKEY’S WATER POLICIES (1923-ONWARDS)………………………………123 5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..123 5.2 Water Politics in Modernising Turkey: Water in Economic Development, Social Progress and Changing Landscapes (1920-1980)……………………….………………125 5.3 Water Politics in Turkey: Water in the Neoliberalisation of Turkey (1980-2001)..135 5.4 Water Politics in Turkey and HPPs: Reassigning the Role of Water in Economic Development, Social Progress and Changing Landscapes (2001-onwards)…………….140 5.5. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………..149 CHAPTER 6: EVIDENCE I: ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AS DISTRIBUTION AND HPP CASES OF WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN PROVINCE……………151 6.1 Introduction………………..………………………………………………………151 6.2 Distribution of Environmental Benefits and Burdens/Environmental Risks……...153 6.2.1 Distribution of Environmental Benefits and Burdens/Environmental Risks in Turkey’s HPP Process……………….…………………………………………………153 6.2.2 Saklıkent HPP and Distribution of Environmental Benefits and Burdens/ Risks……………………………………………………………………………………157 6.2.3 Söğütlüdere HPP………………………………………………………..… …161 6.2.4 Kargı-Yanıklar HPP……………………………………...………………..164 6.2.5 Yuvarlakçay HPP………………………………………………………….167 6.3 Distribution of Vulnerabilities in the Western Mediterranean Province’s HPP Processes…………………………………………………………………………..……170 iv 6.4 Distribution of Responsibilities in Turkey’s and Western Mediterranean Province’s HPP Processes: Exploring ‘Who Gets What from the Environment?’…………………182 6.5 Conclusions………….…………………………………………………………….187 CHAPTER 7: EVIDENCE II: ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AS RECOGNITION AND HPP CASES OF WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN PROVINCE……………190 7.1 Introduction……….……………………………………………………………….190 7.2 Recognition of ‘Place’: Place Stigmatisation (Senses of a Place) and Place Attachments……………………………………………………………………………..191 7.3 Recognition of Locality………………….………………………………………..201 7.4 Recognition of Nature……….…………………………………………………….205 7.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………210 CHAPTER 8: EVIDENCE III: ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AS PARTICIPATION (PARTICIPATIVE OR PROCEDURAL JUSTICE) AND HPP CASES OF WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN PROVINCE………………………...212 8.1 Introduction………….…………………………………………………………….212 8.2 Saklıkent HPP and Meaningful Participation……………………………………..215 8.3 Söğütlüdere HPP…………………………………………………………………..222 8.4 Kargı-Yanıklar HPP……………………………………………………………….228 8.5 Yuvarlakçay HPP………………………………………………………………….234 8.6 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………244 CHAPTER 9: DISCUSSION: SCALING UP ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE CLAIMS FROM LOCAL TO NATIONAL AND MODIFYING ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE FRAMEWORK…………………………………………………..…249 9.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..249 9.2 Discussion I: Interpreting Recognitional Environmental Justice in Turkish Context and Its HPP Process………………….…………………………………………………..250 9.2.1 Rurality in Environmental Justice Literature………………………………….252 9.2.2 Recognition of Rurality in Turkey’s Modernisation and Politics……………..254 9.2.3 Recognition of Rurality in Turkey’s Modernisation and Politics: The Case of HPPs……………………………………………………………………….…………….260 9.3 Discussion II: Interpreting Distributive Environmental Justice in Turkish Context and Its HPP Process….……………………………………………………………………….270 v 9.4 Discussion III: Interpreting Participative (Procedural) Environmental Justice in Turkish Context and Its HPP Process……………………………………………………276 9.5 Recap of the Discussion in Turkish Context: How can Environmental Justice Be Mainstreamed in Turkey’s Water Policies?.......................................................................284 9.6 Broadening the Focus of the Environmental Justice and Highlighting the Contributions to Literature: Modification of the Environmental Justice Frameworks for Developing Country Research…………………………………………………………...288 9.7 Summary.…………………………………………………………………………..292 CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSION……………………………………………………….295 10.1 Introduction…..…………………………………………………………………..295 10.2 Summary of the Research………………………………………………………...297 10.3 Further Research Recommendations………………………………………..........304