MAX-PLANCK-INSTITUT FÜR WISSENSCHAFTSGESCHICHTE Max Planck Institute for the History of Science 2006 PREPRINT 308 Horst Nowacki Developments in Fluid Mechanics Theory and Ship Design before Trafalgar This Preprint contains a slightly edited version of the paper of the same title submitted to the International Congress on the “Technology of the Ships of Trafalgar”, held in Madrid and Cadiz, Spain, on November 3 to 5, 2005, and to be reprodu- ced in the Final Congress Proceedings, to appear in 2006. These Proceedings will be published by the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Navales, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, principal editor Prof. Francisco Fernández-González. DEVELOPMENTS IN FLUID MECHANICS THEORY AND SHIP DESIGN BEFORE TRAFALGAR Horst Nowacki, Technical University of Berlin Summary The ships of Trafalgar were designed and built well before this famous battle. Their design is based on practical experiences and to a lesser extent on new theoretical insights gained throughout the 18th c. During that century new foundations were laid in fluid mechanics by such prominent scientists as Newton, the Bernoullis, Bouguer, Euler, D’Alembert, Jorge Juan and many others. On the other hand a pioneering group of naval architects including Sutherland, Blaise Ollivier, Duhamel du Monceau and Chapman are witnesses for early attempts of applying nascent, often still immature scientific insights to ship design. In this paper an assessment of design methodologies and of the gradually increasing knowledge on hydromechanical performance will be presented for the fleets of Trafalgar, both for ships of the line and for frigates. This will tend to reveal a dominance of empirically based design, tempered at best by a growing physical understanding of sailing ship performance. In conclusion, this review will demonstrate how much we must respect the practical success of empirically based design of the great sailing warships despite still prevailing, but gradually diminishing deficits in ship fluid mechanics theory. 1. Introduction This Congress deals with the technology of the ships of Trafalgar. This famous sea battle in 1805 is an important military and political event in the history of Europe. The ships that fought at Trafalgar represented the fleets of three major and traditional seafaring nations in Europe, the British Fleet under NELSON with 27 ships of the line, the Combined Fleet of the French/Spanish alliance under VILLENEUVE with 33 ships of the line, plus a few other smaller vessels in auxiliary roles on both sides. These ships, the pride of their nations in gallant seamanship, embodied the most advanced technological know-how, shipbuilding experience, design knowledge and physical understanding of their era. This knowledge, acquired in the course of several centuries in the development of the great sailing warships, a matter of the highest technological prestige, had reached a very far advanced level by the time of Trafalgar. An analysis of the technology of the ships of Trafalgar, their design, construction and performance, thus also mirrors the technical culture and scientific awareness of a whole era. The development of the sailing warships with guns has lasted several centuries and has been promoted by many technological, military and political influences. Jan GLETE [1] has very aptly described the processes that led to the formation of those sailing navies and has distinguished the following major developments: (1) “The gunpowder revolution” (abt. 1450-1650): A technological development, resulting in a new type of sailing warship as a gun platform, gradually rendering rowed warships obsolete. (2) “The military revolution” (after 1700): The establishment of professional state armies and navies. (3) “The bureaucratic revolution” (after abt. 1650): The increasing dominance in national states of centralized administrative power over naval affairs. - 1 - To this we may add: (4) “The scientific revolution” (abt. 1600-1700): The growing influence of the natural sciences in the century from Galileo to Newton and their impact on technical applications, also in ship design. In the 18th c., leading up to the navies of Trafalgar, all of these driving forces were still in full effect in naval developments in England, France and Spain as well as other maritime nations. In fact, it is during this period that the combined application of technological, administrative and scientific innovations was brought to bear on national naval developments. France under COLBERT and his successors responsible for the French Navy took an early lead in very deliberate efforts of applying science to technical decisions, especially in fleet development and ship design. Spain after mid-century followed a similar route; Britain did the same but much more hesitantly and much later. It is still a matter of dispute whether any such delayed acceptance of new scientific insights really mattered to the ships of Trafalgar. This issue will certainly be addressed in this paper and others at this Congress. It can be argued that the terminology of “revolutions” for the leading motive forces of naval innovation, as used above, is exaggerated since all of these trends lasted for extended periods and in fact tended to be rather evolutionary. In fact, regarding the “Scientific Revolution”, a designation apparently first introduced by the French science historian Alexandre KOYRÉ in 1939, SHAPIN [2] has claimed that such a revolution never occurred. Such objections to such terminologies do not matter in the present context concerning the ships of Trafalgar. Rather we are interested in the question whether the attempted concerted application of technological, organizational, and scientific knowledge did or did not create any positive synergies in naval innovation for the ships of Trafalgar. This paper will focus on developments in ship fluid mechanics and in hydrodynamic ship design as a specific test case for this broader issue. In fact, the study will concentrate on ships of the line, which formed the dominant core of the battle fleets of Trafalgar, and on frigates in their subsidiary role, which as smaller, faster ships due to their different operational missions and functional requirements permit to highlight a different spectrum of achievements in naval technology. Fig. 1: Schematic silhouette of the Spanish ship of the line Santísima Trinidad (from [3]). - 2 - The method of investigation will be principally to look for the roots of the knowledge embodied in the actual ships, i.e., to trace the knowledge genesis and dissemination, to search for any changes in design approach and its knowledge background and to identify the consequences of new or still missing physical understanding. This method can be applied regardless of whether the source of the knowledge is strictly empirical or is augmented by hypotheses derived from interpretations of physical observations. Fig. 2: Stages of the scientific learning process (knowledge genesis process) The learning process in the transition from craftsmanship to scientifically founded technologies goes through several stages (Fig. 2): o Observation of physical phenomena and the class of design objects in their physical environment o Interpretation, i.e., physical explanation of observations, often based on correlation of empirical data o Hindcasting, i.e., quantitative analysis based on assumed hypotheses for the performance of an object when built o Forecasting, i.e., prediction of performance properties for an intended design before building In the beginning of the 18th c. ship design was based almost solely on observation and its skilful interpretation. During that century it went through a transition to deliberate hindcasting and forecasting, more successfully in some areas than in many others. The ships of Trafalgar thus represent an early milestone in a much longer range development. This does not at all detract from the value of the new insights gained during the 18th c. The main body of this paper is structured into three sections: The design objectives for the ships of Trafalgar (Section 2), the history of ship fluid mechanical knowledge during the 18th c. (Section 3), and an assessment of ships in their main hydrodynamic performance characteristics (Section 4). In conclusion this discussion will help to answer some of the following questions with a view to the ships of Trafalgar: o How were hydromechanically relevant design decisions taken in practice and how did this affect ship performance? o Where did ship design actually benefit from growing scientific insight? - 3 - o Where and how did emerging new theories still fall short of practical applicability? 2. Design objectives During the 18th c. the functional requirements for naval ships and their operational strategies, whether they were to be deployed offensively in sea battles or defensively in protective missions, had only very gradually further developed so that the design objectives for the naval fleets had become rather standardized. Different missions required specialized classes of ships, viz., ships of the line as floating gun platforms in sea battles, generally heavier and slower, and the lighter, faster frigates for cruising missions. (These were two-deckers with only one gun-deck with around 40 guns, which had gained increasing popularity since about 1750 (GARDINER/ LAVERY [4])). The following design objectives (Fig. 3) form a common denominator for both classes of ships, though with different orientations and priorities for each class. Fig. 3: Design