Appendix: Notes and Sources for Summary Tables Notes Electoral systems are distinguished for having changed at least one of these elements: single- or multi-member districts, ballot, rule or formula. In contrast, changes are recorded within a single system for term, number of seats, number of districts, magnitudes and thresholds, which are given as ranges within each period (or as an average*). Public ballot and indirect elections are indicated when they exist; otherwise assume secret ballot and direct elections. The following abbreviations have been used: Maj. = Majority; Plu. = Plurality; Prop. = Proportional. ‘Universal MS’ indicates the introduction of universal male suffrage. The sign // indicates a period without elections or with authoritarian fake elections. See Glossary for definitions. Sources General Blais, André and Louis Massicotte (1997) ‘Electoral Formulas: A Macroscopic Perspective’, European Journal of Political Research, 32: 107–29. Cox, Gary W. (1997) Making Votes Count. Strategic Coordination in the World’s Electoral Systems. New York: Cambridge University Press. Freedom House (R. D. Gastil and Adrian Karatnycky eds) (1972–2002) Freedom in the World. The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties. New Brunswick: Transaction <www.freedomhouse.org>. Katz, Richard S. (1997) Democracy and Elections. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lijphart, Arend (1994) Electoral Systems and Party Systems. A Study of Twenty-Seven Democracies, 1945–1990. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mackie, Thomas T. and Richard Rose (1991) The International Almanac of Electoral History, 3rd edn. London and Washington, DC: Macmillan-Congressional Quarterly. Massicotte, Louis, and André Blais (1999) ‘Mixed Electoral Systems: A Conceptual and Empirical Survey’, Electoral Studies, 18, 3: 341–66. Nohlen, Dieter (1996) Elections and Electoral Systems. Delhi: Macmillan India. Reynolds, Andrew and Ben Reilly (eds) (1997) The International IDEA Handbook of Electoral System Design. Stockholm: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. Rose, Richard (ed.) (2000) International Encyclopedia of Elections. London and Washington, DC: Palgrave-Congressional Quarterly. Websites <www.dodgson.ucsd/edu/lij> (Arend Lijphart Archive, University of California, San Diego) <www.electionworld.org> (Elections Around the World) <www.essex.ac.uk/elections> (University of Essex) <www.idea.int> (International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance) <www.ifes.org> (International Foundation for Electoral Systems) <www.parline.org> (International Parliamentary Union) 544 Appendix 545 Americas Basadre, Jorge (1980) Elecciones y centralismo en Perú. Apuntes para un esquema histórico. Lima: Universidad del Pacifico. Botana, Natalio ([1977] 1998) El orden conservador. La política argentina entre 1880 y 1916. Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. Bushnell, David (1993) The Making of Modern Colombia. A Nation in Spite of Itself. Berkeley: University of California Press. Cantón, Darío (1973) Elecciones y partidos politicos en la Argentina. Historia, interpretación y balance. Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI. Delgado, Oscar (2002) ‘Los sistemas electorales para el congreso en Colombia (1821–2002)’, Estudios Socio-Jurídicos, 4, 2: 67–129. Duarte Oropesa, José A. (1975) Historiología cubana, 3 vols. Miami, FL: Universal. González Casanova, Pablo (ed.) (1985) Las elecciones en México. Mexico: Siglo XXI. Graham, Richard (1990) Patronage and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Brazil. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Jones, Mark P. (1995) ‘A Guide to the Electoral Systems of the Americas’, Electoral Studies, 14, pp. 15–21. Jones, Mark P. (1997) ‘A Guide to the Electoral Systems of the Americas: An Update’, Electoral Studies, 16, pp. 13–15. Nohlen, Dieter (ed.) (1993) Enciclopedia electoral latinoamericana y del Caribe. San José, Costa Rica: Instituto Interamericano de Derechos Humanos. Porto, Walter Costa (1989) O voto no Brasil. Da colônia à 5a Republica. Brasilia: Senado Federal. Rodríguez Arechavaleta, Carlos M. (2003) La quiebra de la democracia cubana, 1940–1952. Doctoral dissertation, Flacso, Mexico. Website <www.georgetown.edu/pdba> (Georgetown University, Center for Latin American Studies) Western Europe Bartolini, Stefano (1984) ‘Sistema partitico ed elezione diretta del capo dello stato in Europa’, Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica, 14, 2: 223–43. Cole, Alistair and Peter Campbell (1989) French Electoral Systems and Elections since 1789. Aldershot: Gower. Caramani, Daniele (2000) Elections in Western Europe since 1815. London: Macmillan. Carstairs, Andrew McLaren (1980) A Short History of Electoral Systems in Western Europe. London: George Allen & Unwin. Fernández Domínguez, Arturo (1992) Leyes electorales españolas de diputados a Cortes en el siglo XIX. Estudio histórico y jurídico-político. Madrid: Civitas. Georgel, Jacques, Geoffrey-J. Hand, Christophe Sasse et al. (1977) Les régimes électoraux dans la Communauté Européenne. Paris: Cujas. Grofman, Bernard and Arend Lijphart (eds) (2002) The Evolution of Electoral and Party Systems in the Nordic Countries. New York: Agathon. Rueda, José-Carlos (ed.) (1998) Legislación electoral española (1808–1977). Barcelona: Ariel. Tavares de Almeida, Pedro (1997) ‘Reformas electorales y dinámica política en el Portugal liberal (1851–1910)’, in Salvador Forner (ed.), Democracia, elecciones y modernización en Europa. Siglos XIX y XX. Madrid: Catedra, pp. 73–108. Eastern Europe Birch, Sarah (2000) ‘Elections and Representation in Post-Communist Eastern Europe’, in Hans-Dieter Klingemann and Kenneth Newton (eds), Elections in Central and Eastern Europe: The First Wave. Berlin: Sigma, pp. 13–35. 546 Handbook of Electoral System Choice Filippov, Mikhail G. and Olga V. Shvetsova (1995) Political Institutions and Party Systems in New Democracies of Eastern Europe. Paper presented at the American Political Science Association annual meeting, Chicago. Flores Juberías, Carlos (1995) ‘The Transformation of Electoral Systems in Eastern Europe and Its Political Consequences’, Journal of Constitutional Law in Eastern and Central Europe, 2, 1: 1–59. Ishiyama, John T. (1997) ‘Transitional Electoral Systems in Post-Communist Eastern Europe’, Political Science Quarterly, 112, 1: 95–115. Moser, Robert (1999) ‘Electoral Systems and the Number of Parties in Post-Communist States’, World Politics, 51: 359–84. Shvetsova, Olga V. (1999) ‘A Survey of Post-Communist Electoral Institutions: 1990–1998’, Electoral Studies, 18: 197–409. Africa Mozaffar, Shaheen (1997) ‘Electoral Systems and Their Political Effects in Africa: A Preliminary Analysis’, Representation, 34: 148–56. Nohlen, Dieter, Michael Krenerich and Bernhard Thibaut (eds) (1999) Elections in Africa, A Data Handbook. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Reynolds, Andrew (1998) Electoral Systems and Democratization in Southern Africa. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Asia-Pacific Croissant, Aurel (2002) ‘Electoral Politics in Southeast and East Asia: A Comparative Perspective, manuscript, University of Heidelberg, Institute for Political Science. Fuh-sheng Hsieh, John and David Newman (eds) (2002) How Asia Votes. New York and London: Chatham House. Hicken, Allen and Yuko Kasuya (2003) ‘A Guide to the Constitutional Structures and Electoral Systems of East, South and Southeast Asia’, Electoral Studies. Nohlen, Dieter, Florian Grotz and Christof Hartmann (eds) (2001) Elections in Asia and the Pacific. A Data Handbook, 2 vols. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Glossary and Index Note K: number of candidates; M: magnitude or number of seats; V: number of votes per voter. Absolute majority rule. The winner is the alternative with more than half the votes, whether by simple majority or by qualified-majority. Additional-member system. See personalized proportional representation. Alternative vote. In a single-member district by majority rule, each voter can order all the candidates as preferred; seats are allocated by majority first preferences, or by elimination of least voted candidates and voters’ second and further preferences (K = V>M= 1). Also called majority-preferential (Australia) or instant-runoff (United States) or optional-preferential voting (Papua New Guinea). See: Australia 1918– 467, 475 Ireland president 1937– 208 Apparentement (French). In proportional representation systems, parties present separate lists of candidates but declare themselves linked (parented) for joint vote counting and seat allocation. See: France 1951–56 195–7, 209 Italy 1953 200–1, 237 Apportionment. Allocation of seats among districts on the basis of population. Also called redistribution (Britain). See exact quota, sufficient quota. Approval ballot or voting. In a single-member district, usually by plurality rule, each voter can vote for as many candidates he or she wishes, whether more, less or in equal number to seats in the district (K > V ≥ M = 1). At-large. A single multi-member district to elect all the seats in the assembly. Ballottage (French). See runoff. Bloc ballot. In a multi-member district by plurality rule, each voter can vote for a closed list of candidates (K ≥ M = V>1). See: Canada 1874–1968 97 United States 1789–1968 103, 108–9, 155 Categoric ballot. Each voter can vote for only one candidate or party list. See closed list, single ballot, single non-transferable vote. Choice voting. See single transferable vote. Closed list. In a multi-member district by proportional representation, each voter has to choose