CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by OTHES DISSERTATION Titel der Dissertation Sex Differences in Mortality in Lower Austria and Vienna in the Early Medieval Period: An Investigation and Evaluation of Possible Contributing Factors angestrebter akademischer Grad Doktorin der Naturwissenschaften (Dr. rer.nat.) Verfasserin: Martina Herold Matrikel-Nummer: 0607930 Dissertationsgebiet (lt. Anthropologie Studienblatt): Betreuerin: Univ.-Prof. Dr. Maria Teschler-Nicola Wien, am 10. Oktober 2008 Table of contents Table of contents ...............................................................................................................i List of tables ....................................................................................................................iv List of figures ...................................................................................................................v Abstract..............................................................................................................................1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................2 Literature review ...............................................................................................................4 Material and methods ........................................................................................................5 Investigated populations................................................................................................5 Wien-Csokorgasse.....................................................................................................6 Leobersdorf ...............................................................................................................6 Zwölfaxing ................................................................................................................7 Pitten..........................................................................................................................7 Pottenbrunn ...............................................................................................................8 Historic background: Avars and Slavs ..........................................................................9 Avars .........................................................................................................................9 Slavs ........................................................................................................................11 Avars and Slavs in Eastern Austria .........................................................................12 Methods .......................................................................................................................14 Palaeodemographic analysis....................................................................................14 a. Mean age at death of females and males .....................................................14 b. Mortality profiles.........................................................................................16 c. Age distribution of the living population ....................................................17 d. Masculinity index ........................................................................................22 Analysis of possible contributing factors for increased female mortality...............23 a. Maternal mortality.......................................................................................23 b. Systemic (juvenile) stress............................................................................24 c. Linear Enamel Hypoplasia ..........................................................................24 d. Cribra orbitalia.............................................................................................28 Sex differences in diet .............................................................................................32 a. Stable isotope analysis and diet...................................................................32 b. Assuring the quality of the investigated samples ........................................36 c. Sample preparation for stable isotope analysis ...........................................38 d. Influence of NaOH treatment ......................................................................39 e. Mass spectrometry.......................................................................................41 - i - Statistical analysis ...................................................................................................42 a. Chi-square-test.............................................................................................43 b. T-Test ..........................................................................................................43 Results .............................................................................................................................44 Palaeodemographic data..............................................................................................44 Leobersdorf .............................................................................................................44 Pitten........................................................................................................................45 Pottenbrunn .............................................................................................................46 Zwölfaxing ..............................................................................................................48 Wien-Csokorgasse...................................................................................................49 Palaeodemography of all sites.................................................................................50 Analysis of possible contributing factors ....................................................................54 Maternal mortality...................................................................................................54 a. Osteological evidence..................................................................................54 b. Evolution and obstetrics ..............................................................................55 c. Historical indicators and contemporary data...............................................57 d. Maternal mortality summary.......................................................................60 Increased stress levels among female juveniles ......................................................61 a. Linear enamel hypoplasia............................................................................61 b. Cribra orbitalia.............................................................................................66 c. Stress markers summary..............................................................................70 Sex differences in diet .............................................................................................71 a. Isotopic composition of bone collagen and diet..........................................71 b. Results of sites.............................................................................................72 c. Correlations between stress markers and isotopic values............................84 Diet and mortality....................................................................................................87 a. Iron and female health.................................................................................89 b. Amino acids and female health ...................................................................91 c. Possible consequences of protein deficiency for female health and longevity..............................................................................................................92 d. Vitamin D deficiency ..................................................................................93 Genetic factors.........................................................................................................94 Discussion........................................................................................................................95 References .....................................................................................................................100 Appendix .......................................................................................................................112 Detailed results from all sites ....................................................................................112 - ii - Leobersdorf ...........................................................................................................112 Pitten......................................................................................................................118 Pottenbrunn ...........................................................................................................121 Zwölfaxing ............................................................................................................125 Wien-Csokorgasse.................................................................................................129 Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................133 Zusammenfassung .....................................................................................................135 Curriculum Vitae .......................................................................................................137