University of Wisconsin Milwaukee UWM Digital Commons Theses and Dissertations May 2020 Prehistoric Humans and Elk (cervus Canadensis) in the Western Great Lakes: A Zooarchaeological Perspective Rebekah Ann Ernat University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.uwm.edu/etd Part of the Archaeological Anthropology Commons, and the Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Commons Recommended Citation Ernat, Rebekah Ann, "Prehistoric Humans and Elk (cervus Canadensis) in the Western Great Lakes: A Zooarchaeological Perspective" (2020). Theses and Dissertations. 2372. https://dc.uwm.edu/etd/2372 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by UWM Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of UWM Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. PREHISTORIC HUMANS AND ELK (CERVUS CANADENSIS) IN THE WESTERN GREAT LAKES: A ZOOARCHAEOLGOCIAL PERSPECTIVE by Rebekah Ann Ernat A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Anthropology at The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee May 2020 ABSTRACT PREHISTORIC HUMANS AND ELK (CERVUS CANADENSIS) IN THE WESTERN GREAT LAKES: A ZOOARCHAEOLGOCIAL PERSPECTIVE by Rebekah Ann Ernat The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 2020 Under the Supervision of Professor Jean Hudson This thesis examines the relationship between humans and elk (Cervus canadensis) in the western Great Lakes region from prehistoric through early historic times, with a focus on Wisconsin archaeological sites. It takes a social zooarchaeological perspective, drawing from archaeological, ecological, biological, historical, and ethnographic sources. I also use optimal foraging theory to examine subsistence-related decisions. Based on my review of 34 Wisconsin archaeological sites or site components, elk diminished in relative dietary importance in prehistoric times as subsistence strategies shifted. The use of their bones, especially scapulae and antlers, in tool production increased. Other roles, as markers of group and personal identity, holders of spiritual power, images to invoke magic or provide instruction, and figures in stories, are less straightforward to track over time but no less relevant. Modern human-elk relationships can be enriched by a greater understanding of the past, especially through museums and other forms of public education. ii © Copyright by Rebekah Ann Ernat, 2020 All Rights Reserved iii To my family, especially my parents, in gratitude iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures................................................................................................................................ vii List of Tables................................................................................................................................. vii List of Abbreviations..................................................................................................................... ix Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................ x 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Research Question.............................................................................................................. 4 1.2 Theoretical Background...................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Methods and Sources......................................................................................................... 7 1.4 Organization of the Thesis................................................................................................ 16 2 Background on Elk and Humans of the Western Great Lakes 2.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................... 18 2.2 Elk 2.2.1 Taxonomy............................................................................................................. 20 2.2.2 Life History............................................................................................................ 23 2.2.3 Ecology.................................................................................................................. 26 2.2.4 Historic Range and Abundance............................................................................. 31 2.3 Native Peoples of the Western Great Lakes 2.3.1 Prehistoric Period..................................................................................................38 2.3.2 Early Historic Period.............................................................................................. 44 2.4 Conclusions....................................................................................................................... 56 3 The Archaeological and Historic Record 3.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................... 57 3.2 Rock Art............................................................................................................................ 57 3.2.1 Minnesota............................................................................................................. 64 3.2.2 Wisconsin.............................................................................................................. 66 3.2.3 Ontario.................................................................................................................. 72 3.3 Wisconsin Archeological Record....................................................................................... 75 3.3.1 Paleoindian/Archaic.............................................................................................. 82 3.3.2 Woodland............................................................................................................. 89 3.3.3 Mississippian......................................................................................................... 95 3.3.4 Oneota.................................................................................................................. 99 3.4 Wisconsin Historic Record.............................................................................................. 109 3.5 Conclusions..................................................................................................................... 111 4 A Relationship Revisited 4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 113 v 4.2 Elk Reintroductions......................................................................................................... 113 4.3 Popular Discoveries of Elk Remains................................................................................ 120 4.4 Bringing Home the Silver Beach Elk: A Case Study......................................................... 123 4.5 Conclusions..................................................................................................................... 131 5 Conclusions……………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………. 133 5.1 Optimal Foraging Theory, Subsistence, and Ecology 5.1.1 Transport Decisions over Time..………………………………………………………………………… 134 5.1.2 Discussion of Geographic Patterns …………………………………………………………………… 147 5.2 Social Zooarchaeology and Symbolism 5.2.1 Material Culture..................................................................................................... 148 5.2.2 Spiritual and Symbolic Significance….……………………………………………………………….. 151 5.3 Suggestions for Future Research………………………………………………………………………………… 155 5.4 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………….………….……………… 156 References..................................................................................................................................158 Appendices Appendix A: Elk sites in Wisconsin........................................................................................ 184 Appendix B: Known Repositories……………………………………………………………………………………… 194 Appendix C: Additional Publications………………………………………………………………………………… 197 Appendix D: Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation “Elk in Wisconsin” brochure......................... 199 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: North American Elk, Cervus canadensis........................................................................ 1 Figure 1.2: Map of the western Great Lakes region....................................................................... 3 Figure 2.1: Nested classification................................................................................................... 21 Figure 2.2: North American elk and European red deer............................................................... 22 Figure 2.3: Historic and present distribution of elk in North America.......................................... 32 Figure 2.4: Map of Wisconsin vegetation, circa the mid-nineteenth century.............................. 34 Figure 2.5: Chronological table of prehistoric traditions in the Western Great Lakes................. 39 Figure 2.6: Subsistence patterns in the western Great Lakes....................................................... 48 Figure 3.1: Rock art sites of the southwestern Canadian Shield and northern Minnesota.......... 57 Figure 3.2: Comparison among elk, deer, moose, and caribou.................................................... 63