The Fulbright Program and American Public Diplomacy Molly Lenore Bettie Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds Institute of Communications Studies May 2014 ii The candidate confirms that the work submitted is her own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. The right of Molly Lenore Bettie to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. © 2014 The University of Leeds and Molly Lenore Bettie iii Table of Contents Acknowledgements............................................................................................................. vi Abstract ............................................................................................................................ viii List of Abbreviations........................................................................................................... x List of Tables...................................................................................................................... xi List of Figures..................................................................................................................... xi Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1 Public Diplomacy Literature and the Present Study ........................................................... 6 Analytical Framework and Methodological Approach..................................................... 15 Archival Sources ......................................................................................................... 18 Interviews.................................................................................................................... 20 Structure of the Thesis..................................................................................................... 22 Exploring the Theoretical Basis for Exchange Diplomacy .............................................. 28 Public Diplomacy and Exchange Diplomacy................................................................... 29 The Origins of Exchange Diplomacy............................................................................... 38 American Exchange Diplomacy ...................................................................................... 39 Contact and Attitudes ...................................................................................................... 43 Opinion Leaders.............................................................................................................. 47 Public Opinion and Foreign Policy.................................................................................. 50 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 54 A History of the Fulbright Program................................................................................. 57 Origins of the Fulbright Program..................................................................................... 58 Founding the Fulbright Program...................................................................................... 64 Early Exchanges and the Cold War ................................................................................. 67 The Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961...................................................................................... 74 The Vietnam War and Retrenchment............................................................................... 78 Reorganising Information and Educational and Cultural Affairs...................................... 82 Project Democracy.......................................................................................................... 85 The End of the Cold War and the Decline of American Public Diplomacy ...................... 87 After 9/11: The Fulbright Program in the Arab and Muslim World.................................. 91 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 99 Funding the Fulbright Program..................................................................................... 101 iv Funding Structure.......................................................................................................... 102 Surplus War Property and the Private Sector ................................................................. 106 Alternative Funding Sources ......................................................................................... 108 Cost-Sharing and Binationality...................................................................................... 115 Exchange Advocacy...................................................................................................... 121 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 126 The Fulbright Program in American Bureaucracy ....................................................... 128 Information and Educational-Cultural Perspectives ....................................................... 130 The USIA and the Fulbright Program............................................................................ 134 The Stanton Report ....................................................................................................... 138 The End of the USIA..................................................................................................... 145 The Board of Foreign Scholarships................................................................................ 149 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 157 The Fulbright Grantee Experience ................................................................................ 159 The Task of Selecting Fulbrighters................................................................................ 161 Fulbright Categories and Distribution............................................................................ 169 American Grantee Destinations ..................................................................................... 172 Women and the Fulbright Program................................................................................ 175 The Academic Sojourn.................................................................................................. 182 Culture Learning ........................................................................................................... 184 Research and Extra-Curricular Activities....................................................................... 188 After the Fulbright......................................................................................................... 193 Elites and Elitism .......................................................................................................... 199 Evaluation..................................................................................................................... 203 The Fulbright Difference............................................................................................... 214 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 216 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 218 The Fulbright Program and American Public Diplomacy............................................... 219 The Future of the Fulbright Program ............................................................................. 226 Policy Recommendations .............................................................................................. 229 Further Research Directions .......................................................................................... 232 Bibliography.................................................................................................................... 235 Primary Sources ............................................................................................................ 235 v Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 249 Appendix A...................................................................................................................... 264 Randall Bennett Woods Interview ................................................................................. 264 Hoyt Purvis Interview ................................................................................................... 272 US to UK Student Interview 1....................................................................................... 283 US to UK Student Interview 2....................................................................................... 285 Appendix B...................................................................................................................... 287 vi Acknowledgements The initial guidance and inspiration for this project came from the late Professor Philip M. Taylor, whose teaching