energies Article Methodology for Calculating the Energy Security Index of the State: Taking into Account Modern Megatrends Andriy Stavytskyy 1, Ganna Kharlamova 1,* , Olena Komendant 2, Jarosław Andrzejczak 3 and Joanna Nakonieczny 4 1 Faculty of Economics, Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, 01033 Kyiv, Ukraine; [email protected] 2 Department of Economic Security and Financial Investigations, National Academy of Internal Affairs, 03035 Kyiv, Ukraine; [email protected] 3 Institute of Information Technology, Lodz University of Technology, 90-001 Łód´z,Poland; [email protected] 4 Faculty of Management, Rzeszow University of Technology, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Energy issue stays a top priority for the national security of most countries. Despite numer- ous international forums, large-scale geoeconomic research, international and national projects, and the development of appropriate strategies, the issue of energy security assessment and understanding of its terminology is not a universal practice. The presented study has an ambitious goal to develop a methodology that can provide an objective picture of the energy sector on an international scale with cross-country comparisons under the influence of modern megatrends. Based on 29 indicators, according to the World Bank data since 1991, the energy security index is calculated for the set of Citation: Stavytskyy, A.; world states with further analysis of the cluster dynamics of their common trends in energy security. Kharlamova, G.; Komendant, O.; The index showed its objectivity and resistance to existing shocks in geoeconomic dynamics. An Andrzejczak, J.; Nakonieczny, J. important feature of the proposed index is the possibility to compare the energy security index with Methodology for Calculating the 1. This value is, in fact, a European average: if a country has an energy security index greater than Energy Security Index of the State: 1, it means that its energy level is currently better than the European average, and if it is lower Taking into Account Modern than 1, it means that it is inferior to the level of energy security currently achieved on average in Megatrends. Energies 2021, 14, 3621. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14123621 Europe. The concept of calculating the index of energy security of the state is based on a unified comparison of all countries, which allows us to move away from the use of signaling approaches and Academic Editor: Josef Maroušek eliminate subjectivity in calculations, as well as provide a basis for dynamic comparison of energy security. The vital aspect of the index is that it takes into account changes in the energy paradigm, Received: 16 May 2021 the transition to alternative energy sources, and the comprehension of the role of energy efficiency, in Accepted: 16 June 2021 particular, of fossil fuels. The study identifies clusters of countries that have consistent similarities Published: 18 June 2021 in energy security, which can usually be of practical interest in developing energy strategies and understanding the similarity of geoeconomic interests of these states. Thus, this article contributes Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral not only to the development of scientific approaches to the assessment of energy issues, in particular, with regard to jurisdictional claims in through the methodological development of a representative index, but also through the presentation published maps and institutional affil- of statistically sound results for further effective management decisions at the state level. iations. Keywords: energy security index; energy security; clustering; Europe; resources; efficiency Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. 1. Introduction This article is an open access article Energy is widely understood as an important component of national security [1]. The distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons concept of “energy security” has become widely used and closely related to the security Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// of the country [2], given that the problem of providing the economy and population with creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ energy resources is becoming more complicated every year in general (in particular, from 4.0/). a European point of view). The world currently faces the fight and intensive search for Energies 2021, 14, 3621. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14123621 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21 Energies 2021, 14, 3621 2 of 19 a European point of view). The world currently faces the fight and intensive search for energy resources. Despite the technological de developmentvelopment and the integration of robots in our life, still, most wars and world conflicts are about energy resources. Quite obviously, our life, still, most wars and world conflicts are about energy resources. Quite obviously, most governments and international unions are increasingly worried about the stability in most governments and international unions are increasingly worried about the stability the energy sector and the availability of peaceful alternatives that will be harmless to the in the energy sector and the availability of peaceful alternatives that will be harmless to environment [3]. the environment [3]. Despite the constant steps towards circular economy and sustainable development, Despite the constant steps towards circular economy and sustainable development, countries are increasing electricity consumption (Figure1); one of the triggers for this is, countries are increasing electricity consumption (Figure 1); one of the triggers for this is, in particular, digitalization. Scientists’ forecasts show that energy consumption will not in particular, digitalization. Scientists’ forecasts show that energy consumption will not decrease in the coming decades [4]. decrease in the coming decades [4]. 7 6 5 RF 4 EU USA 3 China 2 UK 1 0 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 Figure 1. Electricity consumption in different countries from 1990 to 2019, trillion kW (authors’ scheme based on World Bank data). Bank data). The term term “energy “energy security” security” is isused used almost almost everywhere everywhere in economic in economic and andpolitical political dis- cussionsdiscussions related related to toenergy energy supply supply [5]. [5 ].However, However, it itshould should be be emphasized emphasized that that different authors attach several meanings to the concept of energy security. Quite often, this term is used to give more importance or relevance to the issues covered, which are oftenoften notnot inherently related related to to energy energy security security [6]. [6 ].For For example, example, the theShannon–Wiener Shannon–Wiener formula formula ad- dressesaddresses the theissue issue of diversification of diversification of resource of resource use, rather use, rather than the than direction the direction of their ofsupply their [7].supply The [trilemma7]. The trilemma index focuses index focuseson only onthree only areas three of areas energy of energysecurity security [8,9]. [8,9]. Energy security, in general, can be seen as ensuringensuring uninterrupted access to energy resources at an affordable price [9,10]. [9,10]. Currently, Currently, there is a systematic systematic reduction reduction in in hydro- hydro- carbon fuel reserves. It stimul stimulatesates the ongoing efforts of some countries, mainly oil and natural gas exporters, to put pressure on ener energygy importers to achieve achieve their their political political goals. goals. Thus, the issue of energy security becomes even more important.important. The concept ofof “energy“energy security” security” first first became became the the subject subject of of theoretical theoretical and and practical practical re- researchsearch only only in in the the early early 1970s 1970s because because of the of the first first world world energy energy crisis, crisis, which which was associatedwas asso- withciated the with embargo the embargo of OPEC of memberOPEC member countries countries on oil supplies on oil supplies to developed to developed countries coun- [11]. triesThe response[11]. The toresponse these challenges to these challenges has been in has the been realization in the realization of a comprehensive of a comprehensive definition definitionof energy securityof energy by security the UN by World the UN Energy World Council Energy as Council the assurance as the thatassurance energy that will en- be ergyavailable will inbe theavailable quantity in andthe qualityquantity required and quality under required such economic under such conditions economic [12]. condi- tionsBased [12]. on the above definitions, it is advisable to identify the characteristics of energy securityBased of theon the state: above definitions, it is advisable to identify the characteristics of energy security• first, of it the is onestate: of the most important components of economic security that shows the • first,level it of is energy one of resourcesthe most important that guarantee comp toonents the state of economic its full life; security that shows the • levelsecond, of energy it is considered resources in that the scaleguarantee of the to appropriate the state its state full oflife; security of the fuel and energy complex and its ability to ensure energy independence of the country. Energies 2021, 14, 3621 3 of 19 The country’s energy