Perspectives Quantization of avoided at all costs … [and] tances from us. This is not an expected is intolerable … moreover, it result of big bang cosmology, which starlight redshift represents a discrepancy with would expect a smooth distribution of the theory because the theory redshifts from smaller to larger shifts. not from Hubble postulates homogeneity.’1 For example, this would be analogous Law Therefore, Hubble and other to a baseball pitcher only throwing secular cosmologists attribute this fastballs that were exactly 120, 140, Clint Bishard phenomenon to the universe being or 160 km/h. What happened to the homogeneous and isotropic, not us speeds in between? n analysis of the spectrum of being in the centre of the universe. William G. Tifft of the University Aincoming starlight reveals some In other words, they state that every of Arizona was the first to notice the interesting information, including other place in the universe is relatively quantized nature of the redshift. In the the shift of the light’s wavelengths similar to our place in the universe and 70s, he found that the quantization ap- to be longer or shorter than would be would experience the same view of peared to be centred around 72.45 km/s expected. We know from spectroscopy the expansion of the universe. These (Tifft described the shift as a velocity that light travelling through a gas, homogenous and isotropic positions based on the traditional view that the such as hydrogen, will have certain are assumptions they make given redshifts are due to Doppler shifts). wavelengths absorbed by that gas. their evolutionary bias and not conclu- Later, in the 80s, research showed that Therefore, we would expect light sions based on fact. Neglecting these the quantization also occurred in frac- emitted from stars made up of evolutionary biased assumptions, the tions (½, ⅓, etc.) of this value. Stud- mostly hydrogen to have these same straightforward view remains that the ies then shifted away from the visible wavelengths of light removed as the movement of everything away from spectrum and into the radio spectrum light is emitted from the star into space us could be an indicator that we are given our ability to measure its red- and received by us. However, as we at the centre or near the centre of the shift more accurately. Here also, the analyze the spectrum of this light we universe, and this seems more consist- quantization was similarly occurring. see that these expected ‘hydrogen ent with biblcal assumptions. Additionally, it was found that sub- absorption lines’ are shifted from tracting out the movement of our solar their normal position. Regardless Quantized redshifts system through space and accounting of the direction we look, the farther for relativistic effects improved the the apparent distance to the star (or The quantization of redshifts refers data.2 In the 90s, the quantization data galaxy of stars), the greater the shift is to their apparent clumping around was improved even further when our towards the red (longer wavelength) regular intervals, rather than being movement through space was taken end of the spectrum. This distance to continuously distributed. Therefore, into account assuming we are at rest redshift relationship is known as the by Hubble law, this would indicate with respect to the cosmic microwave Hubble law. The redshift was initially the galaxies tend to be at discrete dis- background.3 explained as resulting from the velocity at which the star was moving through space away from the earth (a Doppler shift). However, cosmologists now attribute the stars movement away from us (redshift) to the actual expansion of space itself. One conclusion could be drawn that this puts us in a special place in the universe given that almost everything in the universe appears to be moving away from us. However, this did not sit well with secular astronomers as this astronomical information was being discovered. For example, the follow- ing quote reveals Hubble’s own bias against this interpretation: ‘Such a condition [these Doppler shifts] would imply that we occupy a unique position in the universe … But the unwelcome supposition Hubble’s law transforms redshift groups to distance groups. Data are idealized, illustrating of a favoured location must be only one of the observed spacings between groups. (From Humphreys4). 12 JOURNAL OF CREATION 20(2) 2006 Perspectives galaxy are the same factors attributing to the quantization noticed by compar- ing galaxies. This leads us to look for causes for the quantization other than distance related effects. Other causes The distance to a star is not the only factor causing the redshift, and the quantization may come from these other contributors of redshift. Actually, there have been well known anomalies to the redshift/dis- tance relationship for some time. For example, hot, early stage stars within our own galaxy exhibit excessive amounts of redshift. This is known as the K-effect. Therefore, if we accept that there are other sources for the redshift, then we open up the door for many alternate explanations for ad- Galaxies tend to be grouped in concentric spherical shells around our home galaxy. The ditional causes of the quantization of distance interval between shells is of the order of a million light years, but since several starlight. Some of the possible expla- different intervals exist, the true picture is more complex than the idealization shown here. (From Humphreys4). nations that seem related to a quantized redshift are as follows: • Tiffts’ proposal that the quantization Quantization Possibilities and Whirlpool (M51) galaxies as well 5 is an inherent property of the as several others. Additionally, the galaxies themselves.3 Hubble Law—concentric spheres newer and more accurate 21 cm radio • Photons interact in strange ways as model spectrum studies have involved galaxy they travel through space, causing Given the common redshift-dis- pairs and closely associated groups distinct values for the redshift. tance interpretation given by Hubble of galaxies that have exemplified the • Time or space itself may be law, the most natural conclusion for its same quantized characteristics. quantized and this provides the quantized nature would be that the sur- Clearly, the stars within a given quantized nature of redshifts.6 rounding galaxies tend to be at distinct galaxy could not be on separate con- Physics has led us down this distances from us. This interpretation centric spheres separated by millions same road before (for example, was proposed by Humphreys in 2002.4 of light-years and therefore follow matter being quantized). If matter He said that the quantization is due to the Hubble law explanation for the is quantized, why not time or us being roughly at the centre of the quantized nature of the redshift. For space? Although we cannot detect universe and the surrounding galaxies example, if the ~72 km/s quantization the quantized nature of time or residing on concentric spheres from observed within the Andromeda galaxy space here on earth, the heavens this centre point.4 These concepts are was due to Hubble law, its stars would have been through a dramatically illustrated in the figures. be more than 3 million light-years different history. Scripture’s 17 As attractive as this view appears apart. Yet, this is farther than the references to God stretching out the from a creationist perspective, the fol- distance from us to the Andromeda heavens like a curtain indicate this.7 lowing discussion shows some difficul- galaxy and orders of magnitude larger Therefore, quantized redshifts may ties with this interpretation. Most all of than its size. Likewise, galaxy pairs just be the effect of the stretching the recent publications since the 1970s or clusters of galaxies gravitationally of space God performed during dealt with the quantization of starlight bound together that exhibit the redshift creation week. This appears to be by comparing different galaxies. How- quantization effect do not fit a concen- consistent with Dr. Humphreys’ ever, the initial publications in which tric sphere model either. Therefore, relativistic cosmology. the quantization was first observed it is difficult to reconcile this evi- • Other possibilities. Halton Arp and reported, dealt with the light from dence with the proposal of concentric may well have spent the most time different stars in the same galaxy show- spheres of galaxies being the cause of of any researcher showing examples ing the characteristics of the ~72 km/s the quantization. Additionally, it is that point towards other sources for quantization. This quantization was logical that the same factors causing the redshift than Hubble’s law. observed within the Andromeda (M31) the quantization from within a single Although not a biblical creationist, JOURNAL OF CREATION 20(2) 2006 13 Perspectives his research contradicts the big bang hypothesis and may contain the key to discovering the proper source of the quantization of the redshift. Those interested in this subject would benefit from reading some of his material.8 Conclusion The quantization of starlight does not appear to be a solid creationist argument for our being at the centre of concentric spheres of galaxies. The observed quantization from the same galaxies or clusters of galaxies moves us towards a different explanation for the quantization than Hubble Law effects. It appears much work still needs to be completed concerning our understanding of the total sources of redshift. The quantization of starlight looks to be a source of interest for years to come in the scientific community. However, as biblical creationists, we should be encouraged since we have the best framework for understanding these issues. Scripture is clear that the earth is young and we are not clouded by false presuppositions based on natu- ralistic explanations. May God bless our efforts as we continue to tackle these issues in cosmology.