Non-Invasive Investigation of Arctic Hunter-Gatherer Archaeological Landscapes Using Combined Remote Sensing and Near Surface Geophysics By David Bryce Landry A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba in partial fulfillment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology University of Manitoba Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada Copyright © 2018, David Bryce Landry i Abstract This dissertation aims to test and evaluate new applications of non-invasive remote sensing and geophysical technologies at three archaeological sites (LdFa-1; LeDx-42; and LbDt- 1) located in the interior region of southern Baffin Island, Nunavut. LdFa-1 and LeDx-42 are both Paleo-Inuit occupation sites, while LbDt-1 is one of only two known chert quarry sites in this region. Methods used at these three Paleo-Inuit sites include terrestrial laser scanning, radar imaging, electromagnetic resistivity and conductivity mapping, and magnetic susceptibility mapping. The methods are examined for both their effectiveness in archaeological fieldwork, and their investigative value on lower relief hunter-gatherer sites. The results of these tests are presented through four original research manuscripts. Developing and integrating a non-invasive multi-method approach to site investigation in the Arctic facilitates efficient in-field data acquisition and allows for less reliance on wide-scale excavation and extended field seasons. Because weather can be an unpredictable factor on site accessibility in the deep interior regions, entire field seasons can, and have been derailed despite best planning efforts and sufficient funding. As such, it is vital that these technologies enable us to collect valuable data within a limited amount of time. Remote sensing and geophysical survey data were collected, processed, analysed, and interpreted in both field and lab settings throughout this project. Because the motivations of this project are heavily methodological in nature, the analytical approach of this dissertation focuses on the ways to integrate these methods and interpretations within pre-established archaeological frameworks. The results of this study demonstrate that non-invasive, multi-method investigation of Arctic hunter-gatherer sites is an effective approach to derive detailed archaeological data without the need for wide-scale excavation. With these data, I was able to more clearly interpret and understand Paleo-Inuit toolstone use and transport patterns beginning at a quarry and then extending across southern Baffin Island’s interior and coastal regions. The combined subsurface imaging and surveys proved to be the most effective way to locate, identify, and investigate anthropogenic features in these complex Arctic environments, and ultimately the resulting information they acquired has enhanced our overall understanding of Paleo-Inuit lifeways in this region. ii Acknowledgements I would like to take the time to wholeheartedly thank all those who have been a vital part in the efforts and completion of this PhD dissertation. First and foremost, my heartfelt thanks go to my advisor, Dr. Brooke Milne. Brooke has been a guiding light throughout my entire graduate tenure. Since first accepting me for my Masters in 2011, and then encouraging me to further pursue a PhD, Brooke has always challenged me in ways I never thought possible, and has never lacked confidence in my abilities, even when I stumbled time and time again. She has been a never-ending source for information, and her expertise in Arctic prehistory continues to amaze me. Brooke has always been there to talk me through struggles and keep me focused on the project at hand. It will be hard to forget how many times simply meeting face-to-face could seemingly solve all my life’s problems. I could not have asked for a better advisor, mentor, and now, lifelong friend. Second, I would like to thank my excellent committee members, Dr. Ian Ferguson, Dr. Robert Park, and Dr. Mostafa Fayek. Their support, advice, and training along the way was stellar and always appreciated. They were always quick to reply to my email requests and provided countless amounts of constructive comments and edits on my dissertation and manuscript drafts over the years. Their expertise across multiple areas of research provided me with the valuable interdisciplinary skillset essential to the completion of this dissertation. I would also like to thank my external examiner, Dr. Douglas Bamforth. His comments and suggestions on my dissertation and during my defence required me to think about the broader implications of my research, and for that, I again offer my profound thanks. Throughout the past four and a half years, I have had the pleasure of working alongside some incredible people. I would like to give many thanks to all of the field crews who worked with Brooke and myself, including Mostafa Fayek, Bob Park, Ian Ferguson, Mulu Serzu, and Rachel ten Bruggencate. Even though we only managed to get into the field for about eight total days, I was able to collect the data I did because of these hardworking and fantastic researchers. Moreover, each and every one of them made the delays in Ottawa, and weeks spent stuck in Iqaluit all the more bearable. Conducting my PhD coursework at the University of Calgary through the Western Deans Agreement program allowed me to meet and work with more wonderful people whom I would like to acknowledge. Both Dr. Peter Dawson and Dr. Gerry Oetelaar welcomed me into their classes, and provided me with a new and exciting outlook on North American archaeology, and the many possibilities of using technology and digital spaces in the field. My time spent in Calgary would not have been as enjoyable as it was if it were not for meeting such good people as Colleen Hughes, and Tyler Murchie. I always benefitted from our long discussions and walks around campus, and am so glad to have made such friends while I was away from home. Finally, I am forever grateful to my Aunt Bonnie and Uncle Pete for opening their home to me while I began this 4-month endeavour in Calgary. They truly let me into their family I always felt embraced. To all my friends and family, I cannot thank you enough for your everlasting love, support, and patience. From phone calls home, to late night movies, game nights, and long discussions over coffee, you have all been there for me since the start. To my brother Stephen, and sister-in-law Lorissa, thank you for always keeping a smile on my face. To Rachel ten iii Bruggencate, Amy Scott, Nitasha Ali, and Sölmundur Pálsson, you have each had an everlasting impact on my life and I will always cherish that. Great big thanks goes to my wonderful partner Deirdre. She has been there for me since the beginning and I love celebrating every moment of this with her. Through all the ebbs and flows of these past few years of writing, she has remained a constant source of happiness and love. With all my heart, thank you. And finally, Mom and Dad, I couldn’t have done this without your encouragement, help, and guidance along the way. You have always been there for me and stayed positive no matter the choices I make in life. For all the hard work you’ve put in, love you’ve given me, and kindness you’ve shown me over the years, I dedicate this dissertation to you. This research would not have been possible without the support from the University of Manitoba, the Department of Anthropology, and Faculty of Graduate Studies. This research was graciously funded by the following agencies and programs: Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada’s Insight Grant Program (#435-2012-1176; Milne, Fayek, Park, Stenton); the Canada Foundation for Innovation – John R. Evans Leaders Fund Project (#25071; Milne); the Manitoba Research and Innovation Fund (Milne); the Manitoba Heritage Grants Program (#12F-H145; Milne); the Polar Continental Shelf Project (Natural Resources Canada, Earth Sciences Sector, Project #647-13), the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council Doctoral Award (Landry); University of Manitoba Graduate Fellowship (Landry); Northern Scientific Training Program (Landry); and the University of Manitoba, Faculty of Graduate Studies SSHRC Graduate Enhancement of Tri-Council Stipends Scholarship (Landry). Final thanks go to anyone I might have missed. I want you to know that I am very grateful for even the smallest contribution and support towards my research. Without all these people in my life, this dissertation would not have been possible. A sincere thanks to everyone. iv Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Table of Contents v List of Tables x List of Figures xi List of Equations xix List of Acronyms xx Use of Copyrighted Material xxi Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Preamble 1 1.2 Study Area, Motivations and Objectives, and Sites 5 1.3 Integrated Methods and Case Study 9 1.3.1 Case Study 1 10 1.3.2 Case Study 2 11 1.3.3 Case Study 3 11 1.3.4 Case Study 4 12 1.4 Significance of Research 13 1.5 Dissertation Framework 14 1.6 Works Cited – Chapter 1 15 Chapter 2. Eastern Arctic Prehistory, Study Area, and Remote Sensing and Geophysics in an Arctic Environment 26 2.1 Human Occupation of Southern Baffin Island 26 2.2 Study Sites 30 2.2.1 LdFa-1 30 2.2.2 LeDx-42 32 2.2.3 LbDt-1 33 2.3 Physical Environment of Interior Southern Baffin Island 36 v 2.3.1 Physiography 36 2.3.2 Climate 36 2.3.3 Geology 37 2.4 Subsistence and Material Resources 43 2.5 Remote Sensing and Geophysical Methods 44 2.5.1 Arctic Geophysical and Remote Sensing Studies 44 2.5.2 Terrestrial Laser Scanning Surveys 46 2.5.3 Magnetometer and Gradiometer Surveys 48 2.5.4 Electromagnetic Surveys 50 2.5.5 Ground Penetrating Radar Surveys 53 2.6 Works Cited – Chapter 2 55 Chapter 3.