BEST PRACTICE APPROACHES TO WATER LAW AND MANAGEMENT IN A DEVELOPED COUNTRY CONTEXT: EXAMINING INTERNATIONAL POLICIES AND PRINCIPLES WITHIN A FEDERAL FRAMEWORK Maureen Papas BA (Hons), M Int. Rel with M Int. Env. Law Macquarie Law School Macquarie University – Sydney Australia This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2014 Table of Contents Table of Contents ……………………………………………………………………… 2 Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………… 7 Statement of Candidate ……………………………………………………………….. 8 Acknowledgement ……………………………………………………………………… 9 List of Abbreviations …………………………………………………………………… 10 Part I THE BACKGROUND …………………………………………………. 11 1.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………….. 12 1.2 Literature review………………………………………………………. 15 1.2.1 Environmental movement…………………………………………… 15 1.2.1.1 Environmental movement and key literature ………………………… 15 1.2.2 Key drivers of water reform ………………………………………………… 17 1.2.3 A new paradigm ……………………………………………………………… 18 1.2.3.1 Sustainable development and emergence of this new paradigm …….. 18 1.2.4 Early law ……………………………………………………………………… 19 1.2.4.1 International law ………………………………………………………. 19 1.3 Multilevel governance …………………………………………………………. 21 1.4 Australian context ……………………………………………………………… 21 1.4.1 History of settlement and early law …………………………………………….. 22 1.4.2 Law reform: Influence by international water law and sustainable development.23 1.5 European context ………………………………………………………………. 25 1.6 Structure and organisation of chapters ………………………………………. 27 1.7 Distinct contribution …………………………………………………………… 30 1.8 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………. 31 Part II INTERNATIONAL/ NATIONAL ……………………………………. 33 Chapter 1 Introduction Page …………………………………………………………… 34 2 Chapter 1: International Global Water Protection in the twenty First Century: Implications for an Australian Multilayered Governance System …… 35 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………… 35 Freshwater – a global issue: What is the problem with water? ……………………. 38 Global water initiatives ……………………………………………………………….. 41 Mar del Plata 1977 ………………………………………………………………….. 41 Dublin conference 1992 …………………………………………………………….. 44 Rio conference 1992 and Chapter 18 of Agenda 21………………………………… 47 Global legal framework: the UN Convention on the law of non-navigational uses of international watercourses ……………………………………………………………. 51 A National perspective: The Watercourse Convention in the Australian context … 57 A 1997 Watercourse Convention Australian federalism …………………………….. 61 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………… 65 Chapter 2 Introduction Page ………………………………………………………….. 66 Chapter 2: Transboundary Aquifers: Challenges and New Directions Beyond ‘transboundary’ Aquifers: Australia’s Great Artesian Basin …………… 67 Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………. 67 1. The Great Artesian Basin ……………………………………………………… 67 1.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………….. 67 2. A Brief history of groundwater in Australia …………………………………. 68 2.1 The Background ………………………………………………………………… 68 2.2 The current governance ………………………………………………………… 69 3. Transboundary and Domestically shared aquifers: looking at commonalities 70 3.1 Characteristics ………………………………………………………………….. 70 3.2 Challenges: political and legal environmental context ………………………. 71 4. The Law of Transboundary Aquifers: setting standard role ……………….. 72 4.1 What are the standards? ………………………………………………………. 72 4.2 Standards in Australia …………………………………………………………. 72 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………. 73 References ……………………………………………………………………………….. 74 3 Part III NATIONAL/STATE ……………………………………………….. 76 Chapter 3 Introduction Page ………………………………………………………… 77 Chapter 3: The Development of Water Law and Governance in Australia: The Evolving Role of the Federal Government …………………………….. 78 Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………….. 79 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………… 80 Common Law heritage characteristics and adaptability …………………………… 82 Common Law: why terra nullius?...................................................................... 82 Pre-federation (1788-1901): colonial period of permanent settlement ………. 84 The River Murray; a contentious issue ………………………………………... 85 Federation: new constitution for old water disputes? ………………………………… 85 The Snowy Mountains Scheme: the active involvement of the Commonwealth Government ……………………………………………………………………… 87 Lessons from the Snowy River Scheme ………………………………………… 88 Calls for a renewed approach: towards collaborative federalism …………………… 89 The beginning of water reforms under CoAG …………………………………. 91 The second stage of water reform under CoAG: The National Water Initiative and the Living Murray Initiative ……………………………………………………. 91 A more proactive function for the Federal Government …………………………….. 94 The third phase of water reforms: a centralised approach ……………………. 94 What does the future hold for the MDB framework?.......................................... 97 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………. 97 References ………………………………………………………………………………... 99 Chapter 4 Introduction Page …………………………………………………………… 107 Chapter 4: Recent Reforms to Australian Water Law – 6 years on: Why has the Federal Water Act been so difficult to implement? ……………………. 108 Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………. 108 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….. 109 What is MLG? ………………………………………………………………………….. 111 MLG and Australian Federalism ……………………………………………………… 114 The National Plan for Water Security: Aims and Aspirations ……………………… 117 New government – Same Reform ……………………………………………………… 120 4 Implementation: 2007-2012 …………………………………………………………… 123 The Basin Plan: Development to Implementation …………………………………… 126 The Lessons for Federal Governments ……………………………………………….. 130 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………. 133 References ………………………………………………………………………………. 135 Part IV COMPARATIVE/FUTURE LESSONS ……………………………. 145 Chapter 5 Introduction Page ………………………………………………………….. 146 Chapter 5: River basin water management between European Union member states: What can Australia learn from another multilevel governance system? ……………………………………………………….. 147 Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………….. 147 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………… 147 Comparative analysis: why compare the EU and Australia? ………………………… 150 Comparison of systems of governance …………………………………………………. 152 The EU WFD: brief overview and critical analysis …………………………………… 156 Australia’s National Water Initiative ………………………………………………….. 166 Brief overview and critical analysis ……………………………………………………. 166 Water reform in the MDB ……………………………………………………………. 171 Lessons learned ………………………………………………………………………… 175 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………… 180 Chapter 6 Introduction Page …………………………………………………………. 182 Chapter 6: The Way Forward: Are further changes to Australian water governance inevitable? ………………………………………………….. 183 Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………… 183 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………. 183 Water resources management in Australia: a brief overview ………………………. 186 A new planning regime in the MDB: from entanglement to re-alignment? ……….. 194 The White Paper on reforming the federation: Are further changes inevitable? …. 199 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………. 207 5 Part V CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………….. 208 Context of study ………………………………………………………………………… 208 Trends across chapters …………………………………………………………………. 208 Overarching lessons and recommendations …………………………………………… 212 Future directions ………………………………………………………………………… 217 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………….. 217 BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………………………….. 219 6 Abstract Australia has a federal system of government and the Australian constitution accorded primary responsibility for water and environmental management with state governments. However, Australia is a country with a large agricultural sector and the limits of water resources are being reached in the nation’s river basins. Responsibility for water resources management is predominantly vested in state governments generating challenges in harmonising management and resolving issues. More recently, the federal government introduced the Water Act 2007 to regulate the Murray Darling river system in an attempt to address the continuing decline of water resources in the Murray Darling Basin. The Commonwealth government has therefore taken a more proactive role in water law and governance in relation to one river system in Australia. The health of the river and the life that it sustains are essential to the wellbeing of its people. However, more broadly water resources remain degraded and over-allocated in this country and therefore identification of best practice law and governance remains of critical importance. This thesis considers how Australia may move forward in this regard through an examination of the historical context, as well as looking to the lessons that may be learned from multilevel governance, the experience of the European Union (EU) and its Water Framework Directive (WFD), as well as international law. 7 Statement of Candidate I certify that the work in this thesis entitled “Best practice approaches to water law and management in a developed country context: Examining international policies and principles within a federal framework” has not previously been submitted for a degree, nor has it been submitted as part of requirements for a degree, to any other university or institution other than Macquarie University. I also certify that the thesis is an original piece of research, and it has been written by me. Any assistance that I received in my research work and the preparation of the thesis itself has been