UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO From Vasconcelos to DeVos: Exploring La Raza Cósmica and its Legacy on Educación and Mexicanidad in the Alta-Baja California Borderlands A Thesis submitted in partial satisfaction for the requirements for the degree Master of Arts in Latin American Studies by Michael Ángel Rodríguez Vázquez Committee in charge: David G. Gutiérrez, Chair Makeba Jones Olga Vásquez 2018 The Thesis of Michael Ángel Rodríguez Vázquez is approved and is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically: _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ Chair University of California San Diego 2018 iii Gracias, Mom & Dad! L@s quiero mucho. iv “Estoy y estuve en muchos ojos. Yo sólo soy memoria y la memoria que de mí se tenga.” Elena Garro, Los recuerdos del porvenir, 1963 v TABLE OF CONTENTS Signature Page……………………………………………………………………………………iii Dedication………………………………………………………………………………………...iv Epigraph……………..…………………………………………………………………………….v Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………………vi List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………………….vii List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………...viii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………….ix Abstract of the Thesis…………………………………………………………………………......x Chapter 1: Introduction…………………..………………………………………………………..1 Chapter 2: Literature Review…………………….……………………………….……...………..7 Chapter 3: Met(h)odologí(y)a………..………………………………………………...………...22 Chapter 4: No Soy de Aquí………………………………………………………………………29 Chapter 5: Ni Soy de Allá…………………………………….………………………………….48 Chapter 6: Encrucijada…………………………...........................................................................67 Chapter 7: Observations………………………………………………………………………….83 Chapter 8: Análisis……………………………….………………………………………….…...97 Chapter 9: Conclusion..…………………………………………………………………………109 Appendix………………………………………………………………………………………..116 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………119 vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AB Assembly Bill AP Advanced Placement COLEF El Colegio de la Frontera Norte DACA Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals DREAM Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors ELL English Language Learner(s) HB House Bill LATI Latin American Studies LAUSD Los Angeles Unified School District MEChA Movimiento Estudiantil Chicanx de Aztlán MMFRP Mexican Migration Field Research Project NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored People NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreeement PROBEM Programa Binacional de Educación Migrante SB Senate Bill SDSU San Diego State University SEP Secretaría de Educación Pública UABC Universidad Autónoma de Baja California UC University of California UCSD University of California San Diego XITO Xicanx Institute for Teaching and Organizing vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Student Pride Regarding Demographics…………………..…………………..………..93 Table 2: Student Shame Regarding Demographics…….……………………………..……..…..94 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank all of the participants in this investigation. I appreciate all of you for taking surveys, participating in focus groups, or spending time with me during one-on-one interviews. Your insights have significantly transformed my view of the world. I would also like to thank each of my committee members. Dr. Gutiérrez, thank you for challenging me during my first quarter of graduate school. It was in your class where I solidified my research topic. Dr. Sawyer, my unofficial fourth member, thanks for guiding me on this project from the very beginning. I still hope that one day we can publish something together. Dr. Jones, thank you for your welcoming class environment. I have told many people that one day I would love to lead a college course just like you. Dr. Vásquez, thank you for helping me frame my approach to these issues. Your constant encouragement has been a blessing. Additionally, I would also like to acknowledge the immense support I have received from Jessica Cassidy, Melissa Floca, Zaira Razu Aznar, Phoebe Bronstein, Norma Ojeda, Victor Clark-Alfaro, Misha Kokotovic, Madeline Baer, Hercilia Corona, and Christine Schuch. All of you were great mentors throughout these two years. Thank you for inspiring me to pursue a PhD. A big thanks goes out to all of my friends, my extended family members, my former students, and all of the people who have inspired me during these last six years. Likewise, thank you to Vanessa, Reyna, Juan Luis, and Javiercito for not only putting up with me, but for also cheering me through each step. Leslie, Lily, and Antonio, I can’t wait to see what lies ahead for each of you. Mom and Dad, gracias a ustedes dos por todos sus sacrificios. Gracias por su apoyo. Este logro empezó con ustedes, y lo hicimos juntos. ix ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS From Vasconcelos to DeVos: Exploring La Raza Cósmica and its Legacy on Educación and Mexicanidad in the Alta-Baja California Borderlands by Michael Ángel Rodríguez Vázquez Master of Arts in Latin American Studies University of California, San Diego, 2018 Professor David G. Gutiérrez, Chair This investigation examines the roles that public schools in the Alta-Baja California borderlands play in constructing notions of identity, specifically mexicanidad. Living in the literal margins of their respective countries, neplanterxs, or those who find themselves living in the "in between," form a unique community. Not considered when national identities were constructed in Washington, DC and Mexico City, these students have had to forge their own identity and figure out how the physical border defines them. However, how do schools on each side impact how these students see themselves? Which historical perspectives do these schools teach, and which ones should they teach? In what ways have policies shaped identities, and what x steps should be taken to be support these students? This multi-modal, mixed methods, bilingual, and binational research project explores these questions and more. Through historical research, this project seeks to shed light on the institutional role school systems have played in forming and disseminating Mexican and US American identities, as well as how many neplanterxs have sought to embrace both. Likewise, one-on-one interviews were conducted with college students from both sides of the border to learn more about their educational experiences, their social science curricula, and their understandings of who and where they are. Ultimately, this thesis aims to demonstrate how the concept of binationality has largely been ignored by the schools in this area, leaving students to navigate this conflict on their own. As the students expressed a strong desire for more course material focused on this particular region, regardless of the border’s arbitrary placement, ideally this research project would be used to motivate educators and policymakers to implement culturally responsive teaching strategies out of respect for their needs and wishes. xi Chapter 1 Introduction ‘Mexicanidad’ in Borderlands Schools: A First Glance Mexican American educator Curtis Acosta, among other teachers, launched the Mexican American Studies program in Tucson, Arizona in 1998. When creating this program, he explained the importance of learning about the history of one’s own community. His curriculum made great strides; graduation, retention, and college matriculation rates among Latinxs in the program soared (Fifer & McGinnis, 2011, scene 2). Standardized test scores skyrocketed, and parent engagement reached a new high. More importantly, students reported feeling much more invested in the classroom material when learning about historical figures with similar backgrounds as their own (scene 2). Self-esteem was among the indicators in which students showed most improvement. All of that changed, however, when Arizona legislators passed House Bill 2281, banning all ethnic studies programs in K-12 education; the aforementioned rates again fell below the national average, and confidence levels plummeted (scene 4). Students responded by organizing protests, delivering speeches to the Arizona Board of Education, and informing news outlets of the recent decision. Evidently, the student body was very receptive to these unique curricula; after three years of advocacy, a federal appeals court eventually overturned HB 2281 (scene 12). The situation in Tucson, Arizona is not unique; all across the United States and Mexico, universities and K-12 institutions are implementing ethnic studies programs and bilingual education standards to promote culture understanding among different racial groups as well as affirm the identities of the students within those programs (Gándara, 2002, p. 476). Although these programs have overwhelmingly been embraced by the students and have had gains similar to those observed in Tucson Unified, various conflicts have arisen. While some districts in the 1 United States have proposed other ethnic studies bans or english-only legislation, many schools in Mexico have been ill-equipped to provide students with these new government-encouraged curricula (Serrano Nájera, 2014, p. 3). Furthermore, issues of authenticity and accuracy of ethnic groups, particularly with regard to Mexican and Mexican American history, have also been called into question. Lastly, much opposition to these curricula has focused on perceived negative affects on students as a whole, ultimately questioning the emotional value of these courses (Hidalgo, 2011,