1 Archaeology, History and Symbolism F. Spagnoli1*, R. Shirazi2, Z. Shirazi3, S. Saeidi Ghavi Andam4 and M. Djamali5 1Italian Institute of Oriental Studies – ISO, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy; 2Department of Archaeology, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Iranian Center for Archaeological Research (ICAR), and Research Center for Cultural Heritage and Tourism (RICHT), Zahedan, Iran; 3Laboratory of Archaeobotany, World Heritage Site of Shahr- i Sokhta and Regional Museum of Southeast Iran. Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Handicrafts of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran; 4Department of Biology and Preclinical Science, Institute of Ecology and Nature Conservation Biology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany; 5Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité et d’Ecologie (IMBE), Aix- Marseille Université, Avignon Université, Technopôle de l’Environnement Arbois- Méditerranée, Aix- en- Provence, France 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Pomegranate in Ancient Cultures According to several botanical reports, a zone in- cluding the northern part of the Iranian Plateau, Pomegranate is a divine gift in the imagery of Afghanistan, central Asia, northern India as well antiquity. It has so many evocative features: as Anatolia is considered as the homeland of the its blossom and flower, the shape of the pome, wild ancestors of pomegranate (Fig. 1.1) (Janick, with a pointed or crowned tip, and its shining 2005; Hummer et al., 2012). Its later geographi- red colour have been emblems of power since cal distribution towards the west and the east ancient times; its innumerable ruby- red seeds was a result of cultural interactions and com- hint at fecundity; and the regular geometry mercial exchanges. In this chapter, first the phil- of the seeds is a replica of the divine order. ological and linguistic evidence of pomegranate Pomegranate was depicted and reproduced in the ancient Near East is presented. Second, in ancient art as a major symbol of fertility, since the Iranian territories are considered as the abundance, perfection and sanctity (Nigro and main centre of its origin, the archaeology and Spagnoli, 2018). Its practical function and its history of this fruit have been investigated in this importance for human life make pomegranate area, and then the study has been extended to- one of the most symbolic fruits in antiquity as wards other territories, including Mesopotamia, well as in modern times. In ancient cultures Egypt, Greece, Cyprus, Levant, Syria and the pomegranate is always linked with the con- Iberian Peninsula. Finally, the symbolic values cept of fertility, even beyond death, and for this and mythological attestation of pomegranate are reason it often appears in association with dei- studied in various ancient cultures. ties such as Anahita, Ishtar, Astarte, Era and *Corresponding author: federica_ spagnoli@ yahoo. it © CAB International, 2021. The Pomegranate: Botany, Production and Uses (eds A. Sarkhosh et al.) 1 2 F. Spagnoli et al. Fig. 1.1. Centre of origin for pomegranate. (Photo: Joseph Postman.) Demeter. In the Christian culture the notion Sanskrit the term for designation of pomegran- of Mary’s virginity is also related to pome- ate is dalim (MacKenzie, 1971). granate. Its iconographic fortune bears wit- ness to the symbolic transcultural role played by this fruit and the pomegranate tree in an- cient Mediterranean, from its farthest oriental 1.4 Pomegranate in Iran (Persia) origins to modern art and religion (Spagnoli, 2019). The earliest archaeobotanical evidence of pomegranate dates back to the 5th millennium BCE. From the Bronze Age, the archaeobotanical 1.3 Ancient Philology data regarding the presence of pomegranate increase considerably. Mesopotamian cunei- The earliest written evidence for pomegran- form records mentioned pomegranate from ate comes from Sumerian cuneiform texts. The the mid- 3rd millennium BCE (Zohary et al., names for pomegranate in ancient Near Eastern 2012). Due to the abundance of wild pome- languages are as follows: Sumerian, ‘nu- urma’; granate trees in Iran (the central, northern, Akkadian, ‘nurmu’ (Roth, 1965); Assyrian, eastern and north- eastern part of the Iranian ‘rummanu’ (related to the modern derivations Plateau), central Asia (southern Turkmenia) ‘rimmon’ in Hebrew and ‘roumman’ in Arabic); and Afghanistan, it is reasonable to think that and Egyptian (both for the tree and fruit), jhmn/ the first phase of its cultivation was started in inhmn (Nigro and Spagnoli, 2018). The modern this part of the Near East. The eastern spread In of pomegranate cultivation from Iran and .’رانا/term for pomegranate in Persian is ‘anār Middle Persian (Sassanid Pahlavi) the equivalent central Asia towards north- western China word for pomegranate is ‘nar’ or ‘narak’ and in (Xingjian) and then to South- east Asia could Archaeology, History and Symbolism 3 be related to the flourishing of trade and com- mercial contacts alongside the Silk Road. 1.5 Pomegranate in Persian Culture and Literature In the Iranian religions, pomegranate is consid- ered as a heavenly plant and is counted among the sacred trees in the Zoroastrian religion. Pomegranate’s branches and flowers were and still are used during the Zoroastrian rituals. According to the later Zoroastrian texts, it is blessed to use pomegranate’s branches in the fire temples. Barsam, a sacred object used during the veneration of fire, was composed of young twigs Fig. 1.2. Golden necklaces and earrings from Marlik. (Photo: Neda Tehrani and Nima of pomegranate shrubs considered as a symbol Fakoorzadeh – by courtesy of the National of fecundity and eternity. During the Sassanid Museum of Iran.) period, pomegranate was a sacred fruit and its plentiful grains were a symbol of Anahita’s fe- cundity. In public Iranian folklore, on the first mortar. Among the archaeological findings, sev- night of winter, called Yalda, pomegranate is an eral ornamental items and other objects have essential element that gives health and abun- been identified related to pomegranate. Several dance throughout the year. In the iconographic necklaces (Negahban, 1996: Pl. XXVI-163; Pl. tradition of the Sassanid period the combination XXVII-205/206; Pl. LI-165; Pl. LVI-205/206; of the pomegranate motif with winged-shaped Pl. LVIII-210) and earrings (Fig. 1.2) (Negahban, thistle branches could be interpreted as a divine 1996: Pl. XXVIII-363; Pl. LII-170/171) were and fertility symbol. The frequent presence of found in funeral contexts. Besides these objects, pomegranate in Persian literature also indicates four pomegranate cage bells have been discov- a popular use of this fruit. In Persian texts, po- ered in tombs no. 18, 30, 44 and 47 (Negahban, ems and miniatures, pomegranate is a symbol 1996: Pl. CXXXVI-943/944/945/946). of youth and feminine beauty (Sedaghat, 2017). A bronze pomegranate- shaped bell used as clapper was also found in a burial context at Gohar Tepe in Mazandaran. It has been re- ported from burial AG2IV-20 (Piller et al., 2009) 1.6 Archaeological Evidence of belonging to Iron Age I/II contexts. Another Pomegranate in Iran archaeological source for the iconography of pomegranate in Iran is a trove of objects, also 1.6.1 Iron Age known as the Ziwiye Treasure, found at the ar- chaeological site of Ziwiye (dating back from the One of the main archaeological corpora relat- 9th to 7th centuries BCE), in Kurdistan province. ed to the iconography of pomegranate in Iran Indeed, in 1948 the French architect A. Godard comes from the Iron Age site of Tepe Marlik published a museum catalogue presenting a small (Cheragh Ali Tepe), excavated in 1961 by an group of silver and ceramic artefacts supposedly Iranian mission headed by E.O. Negahban. It from a site near Saqqiz in the north- west of Iran is situated in the lower part of the Gohar Rud (Muscarella, 2013). Among other objects, sev- valley, near Rostam Abad in the province of eral pomegranate- shaped decorative elements Gilan (Negahban, 1996). The site dates back were found in Ziwiye. One of them is an ivory to the late 2nd millennium BCE (13th century item in the form of a pomegranate, now kept in BCE) and was composed of 53 intact roughly the Metropolitan Museum of Art. At the same constructed rich tombs made by stones and museum are several golden plaques with winged 4 F. Spagnoli et al. Fig. 1.3. Golden earrings and a necklace. (Photo: Neda Tehrani and Nima Fakoorzadeh – by courtesy of the National Museum of Iran.) creatures approaching stylized trees (dating back not only in religious rituals but also in royal to the 8th to 7th centuries BCE) clearly depicting ceremonies (Keshavarzi, 2014). According pomegranate motifs. to historical texts, about one- tenth of the Achaemenid immortal guards carried spears with golden pomegranates on their shafts, and 1.6.2 Achaemenid period the other nine- tenths of them had spears with silver pomegranates on their shafts (Curtis and Simpson, 2010). This evidence shows sharply During the Achaemenid period, the iconograph- the omnipresence of pomegranate in the art and ic evidence of pomegranate increases consider- mythology of the Achaemenid period. Moreover, ably. These attestations can be divided into two the pollen records from Lake Maharlou near categories; that is, goldsmithery and rock relief. Persepolis also indicate the cultivation of pome- In the case of goldsmithery, one of the finest ob- granate in this period. jects, actually kept in the National Museum of Iran, is a pair of earrings with two rows of pome- granates encircled in a golden ring. On each of them, a pendent hangs, enfolded by a golden 1.6.3 Pollen evidence of pomegranate lace (Fig. 1.3, left). This object could be consid- cultivation in ancient Persia ered as a masterpiece of Achaemenid goldsmith- ery. An earring in the form of a pomegranate is Pomegranate (Punica granatum) is the most another example of Achaemenid goldsmithery newly discovered cultivated tree in the pollen (Fig. 1.3, middle). Another item is a golden neck- records of Lake Maharlou basin, some 50 km to lace, found recently in the region of Behbahan the south of Persepolis.