Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women Global Women’s Issues and Knowledge Volume 1 Ability—Education: Globalization Editorial Board General Editors Cheris Kramarae Dale Spender University of Oregon University of Queensland United States Australia Topic Editors ARTS AND LITERATURE HEALTH, REPRODUCTION, RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY Ailbhe Smyth AND SEXUALITY Sister Mary John Mananzan University College, Dublin Dianne Forte Saint Scholastica’s College, Ireland Boston Women’s Health Book Manila Collective Liz Ferrier United States University of Queensland SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Australia HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY Leigh Star CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION OF FEMINISM University of California, Angharad Valdivia Maggie Humm San Diego University of Illinois University of East London United States United States England ECOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT VIOLENCE AND PEACE HOUSEHOLDS AND FAMILIES Ingar Palmlund Evelyne Accad Joan Mencher Linköping University University of Illinois at Urbana- City University of New York Sweden Champaign United States ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT United States Cora V.Baldock POLITICS AND THE STATE Murdoch University Nira Yuval-Davis WOMEN’S STUDIES Australia University of Greenwich Caryn McTighe Musil EDUCATION England American Association of Gill Kirkup Shirin M.Rai Colleges and Universities, Open University University of Warwick Washington, D.C. England England United States Honorary Editorial Advisory Board Nirmala Banerjee Phyllis Hall Beth Stafford Charlotte Bunch Jenny Kien Chizuko Ueno Hilda Ching Theresia Sauter-Bailliet Gaby Weiner Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women Global Women’s Issues and Knowledge Volume 1 Ability—Education: Globalization Cheris Kramarae and Dale Spender General Editors Routledge New York • London NOTICE Some articles in the Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women relate to physical and mental health; nothing in these articles, singly or collectively, is meant to replace the advice and expertise of physicians and other health professionals. Some articles relate to law and legal matters; nothing in any of these articles is meant to replace the advice and expertise of lawyers and other legal professionals. Published in 2000 by Routledge 29 West 35 Street New York, NY 10001 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2003. Copyright © 2000 Routledge Published in Great Britain by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane London EC4P 4EE All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in an form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Routledge international encyclopedia of women: global women’s issues and knowledge/general editors, Cheris Kramarae, Dale Spender. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-415-92088-4 (set)—ISBN 0-415-92089-2 (v.1)— ISBN 0-415-92090-6 (v.2)—ISBN 0-415-92091-4 (v.3)— ISBN 0-415-92092-2 (v.4) 1. Women—Encyclopedias. 2. Feminism—Encyclopedias. I. Title: International encyclopedia of women. II. Kramarea, Cheris. III. Spender, Dale. HQ1115 .R69 2000 305.4′03–dc21 00–045792 ISBN 0-203-80094-X Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-80097-4 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0-415-92088-4 (4-volume set) ISBN 0-415-92089-2 (volume 1) ISBN 0-415-92090-6 (volume 2) ISBN 0-415-92091-4 (volume 3) ISBN 0-415-92092-2 (volume 4) Contents Editorial Board ii Alphabetical List of Articles vii Topical List of Articles xv Contributors xxv Project Staff liii Introduction lv The Encyclopedia 1 Index v Alphabetical List of Articles Ability Armament and militarization Christianity Abortion Art practice: Feminist Christianity: Feminist Christology Abuse Assertiveness training Christianity: Status of women Activism Autobiographical criticism in the church Adolescence Autobiography Citizenship Adoption Automation Class Adoption: Mental health issues Class and feminism Adultery Battery Cloning Advertising Beauty contests and pageants Cohabitation Advertising industry Bigamy Colonialism and postcolonialism Aesthetics: Black feminist—A debate Bioethics: Feminist Commodity culture Aesthetics: Feminist Biography Communications: Overview Affirmative action Biological determinism Communications: Audience analysis Ageism Biology Communications: Content and Aging Bisexuality discourse analysis Aging: Japanese case study Blackness and whiteness Communications: Speech Agriculture Bluestockings Communism AIDS and HIV Body Community AIDS and HIV: Case study—Africa Bookshops Community politics Alternative energy Borders Computer science Alternative technology: Breast Computing: Overview Case study—Africa Breast feeding Computing: Participatory and Altruism Buddhism feminist design Anarchism Built environment Conflict resolution: Mediation and Anatomy Bulimia nervosa negotiation Ancient indigenous cultures: Bureaucracy Confucianism Women’s roles Butch/femme Consciousness-raising Ancient nation-states: Women’s roles Conservatism Androcentrism Cancer Constitutions Androgyny Capitalism Contraception Anger Caregivers Contraceptives: Development Animal rights Cartoons and comics Conversation Anorexia nervosa Caste Cooking Anthropology Celibacy: Religious Cosmetic surgery Antidiscrimination Celibacy: Secular Cosmetics Antiracist and civil rights movements Censorship Courtship Anti-Semitism Census Crafts Apartheid, segregation, and Charity Creation stories ghettoization Chastity Creativity Archaeology Childbirth Creed Archaeology: Northern European Child care Crime and punishment case study Child development Crime and punishment: Archetype Child labor Case study—Women in prisons Architecture Children’s literature in the United States vii ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES Criminology Development: Sub-Saharan and Education: Commonwealth of Critical and cultural theory southern Africa Independent States Cultural criticism Development: Western Europe Education: Curriculum in schools Cultural studies Diaries and journals Education: Distance education Culture: Overview Difference I Education: Domestic science and Culture: Women as consumers Difference II home economics of culture Digital divide Education: East Asia Culture: Women as producers Disability and feminism Education: Eastern Europe of culture Disability: Elite body Education: Gender equity Curriculum transformation Disability: Health and sexuality Education: Gendered subject choice movement Disability: Quality of life Education: Higher education Curse Disarmament Education: Mathematics Cyberspace and virtual reality Discipline in schools Education: Middle East and North Cyborg anthropology Discrimination Africa Disease Education: Nonsexist Dance: Overview Division of labor Education: North America Dance: Choreography Divorce Education: Online Dance: Classical Domestic labor Education: Physical Dance: Modern Domestic technology Education: Political Dance: South Asia Domestic violence Education: Preschool Daughter Dowry and brideprice Education: Religious studies DAWN movement Drama Education: Science Death Dress Education: Single-sex and Deity Drug and alcohol abuse coeducation Democracy Drumming Education: South Asia Democratization Education: Southeast Asia Demography Earth Education: Southern Africa Demonization Eating disorders Education: Special needs Depression Ecofeminism Education: Sub-Saharan Africa Depression: Case study—Chinese Economic status: Comparative Education: Technology medicine analysis Education: Vocational Detective fiction Economics: Feminist critiques Education: Western Europe Determinism: Economic Economy: Overview Educators: Higher education Development: Overview Economy: Global restructuring Educators: Preschool Development: Australia and New Economy: History of women’s Elderly care: Case study—China Zealand participation Elderly care: Case study—India Development: Central and Eastern Economy: Informal Elderly care: Western world Europe Economy: Welfare and the Emancipation and liberation Development: Central and South economy movements America and the Caribbean Ecosystem Empowerment Development: China Écriture féminine Endocrine disruption Development: Chinese case study— Education: Achievement Energy Rural women Education: Adult and continuing Engineering Development: Commonwealth of Education: Antiracist Entrepreneurship Independent States Education: Central Pacific and South Environment: Overview Development: Japan Pacific Islands Environment: Australia and New Development: Middle East and the Education: Central and South Zealand Arab region America and the Caribbean Environment: Caribbean Development: North America Education: Chilly climate in the Environment: Central and Eastern Development: South Asia classroom Europe viii ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES Environment: Central and South Family: Power relations and power Feminism: First-wave North American America structures Feminism: Japan Environment: Commonwealth of Family: Property relations Feminism: Jewish Independent States Family: Religious and legal systems— Feminism: Korea Environment: East Asia (China) Buddhist traditions Feminism: Lesbian Environment: East Asia (Japan) Family: Religious and legal systems— Feminism: Liberal British and Environment: Middle East Catholic and Orthodox European Environment: North Africa Family: Religious and legal systems— Feminism: Liberal North American Environment: North America East Africa Feminism: