CICE Hiroshima University, Journal of International Cooperation in Education, Vol.14 No.2 (2011) pp.67 ～ 81 Comparing the Cultural Contents of Mandarin Reading Textbooks in China, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan Yi-Jung Wu Shih Hsin University, Taiwan Abstract In China, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan, Mandarin Chinese is considered the official language (or one of the dominating languages). The four geographical areas have been organized around relatively independent political and administrative systems for the past century. Even after Hong Kong’s return to China in 1997, the special administrative area has maintained a level of autonomy in many aspects, including its educational system. This paper has two primary aims: first, to analyze the reading curriculum and textbooks that are employed in these four locales and explore to the extent to which the same language, Mandarin, is taught differently in each educational system; and second, to investigate and discuss how the design of the reading curriculum and textbooks differentially reflects core aspects of the society, culture, and political ideologies in each setting. Introduction The Mandarin Chinese language has become a widely used language around the world. Currently there are more than 1.3 billion people who consider Mandarin Chinese as their native language (United Nations, 2011). The dominance of China in economic, political, military, and cultural developments over the past decade makes it a “rising dragon” in the world. In addition to China, there are three other areas— namely, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan--where Mandarin Chinese is considered as one of the major/official languages. Together these four areas play important roles in current world economy, especially in East Asia. As a result, the importance of language skills in Mandarin Chinese has drawn much attention among observers in the world. Even though all four areas share Mandarin as their common official language, each has its own unique history and is operated under very different political systems, which lead to different cultural environments. Moreover, the educational systems also vary. As many have noted, to think about the curriculum is to contextualize, since the curriculum is “connected to the cultural, political, and economic institutions of the larger society” (Beyer & Apple, 1998). Thus the question arises: to what extent, if any, do political, economic and cultural characteristics affect the design and contents of the Mandarin reading textbooks used in － 67 － Yi-Jung Wu these four Mandarin Chinese speaking areas? To address this question, this paper will, first, note several important historical and cultural distinctions as well as basic differences in each area’s political and educational systems, which help shed light on contemporary patterns and trends (Bray & Lee, 2001). Second, the paper will briefly introduce relevant literature and research methods for the study. Third, the main research findings will examine how different Mandarin language textbooks are designed and organized in these four geographical locales. Lastly, the paper will discuss the study’s main findings as well as several lessons to be learned. Same Language Under Different Systems Political Systems China has long been recognized as a combination of “socialism” economics and “totalitarian” politics. Before the economic reforms starting in the late 1970s, the Chinese government used a strong arm in leading the country to accomplish the ideal of Marxism and Communism. Since these reforms took root, the government has re- directed the country toward market economy (Bray & Lee, 2001). While the economic orientation shifted, the Chinese government still tightly controls political activities and ideologies. As the Chinese economy continues to rapidly develop over the past decade, the country increasingly resembles a “semi-capitalism” economic structure. And while the government is reluctant to openly admit it, the shift of economic orientation has resulted in the modification of social values. The government now attempts to tackle many new growing problems—for example, corruption, prostitution, and counterfeiting--which are thought to be linked to these value changes (He, 1998; Liu, 2005). Before Hong Kong returned to China in 1997, it had been a British colony since 1841 (colonized briefly by Japan during the Second World War). During the colonial period, the British government set up strong political and economic foundation to govern Hong Kong. Politically, the British government allowed Chinese residents to participate in administrative affairs and be appointed to political positions. The British government also treated Chinese (around 95% of the population according to the 2006 census) and non-Chinese equally under the Law. Economically, Hong Kong was positioned by the British government to be a financial and trade center (Luk, 1991). After 1997, the Chinese government promised to keep Hong Kong as it has been in most aspects during the next fifty years and ruled Hong Kong under the principle of “one country, two systems” (Morris, Kan, & Morris, 2001). Politically, Hong Kong becomes the “Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (HK-SAR)” which enjoys considerable political autonomy, although the Chief Executive is still appointed by the Chinese government (HK-SAR, 2011). Economically, Hong Kong remains a vibrant capitalist market. As a result, the Hong Kong system is more similar to the English system rather than to the Chinese one. － 68 － Comparing the Cultural Contents of Mandarin Reading Textbooks in China, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan Singapore shared a common British colonial history with Hong Kong since the 19th century and was also ruled by Japan during World War II. In the 1950s, Singaporean society was filled with deep ethnic and linguistic segmentation. Unlike Hong Kong, the composition of the population is more heterogeneous: about 70% are ethnic Chinese (as of 2010), the remaining population consists of Malays, Indians, and others. In the past, different ethnic groups have fought over their own political identity and the government was challenged to control the simmering conflicts (Gopinathan, 2001). Later in 1965, the British power allowed Singapore to become independent and withdrew its political involvement from Singapore. From then on, the government began to promote and implement a clear value of “multilingualism” and “multiculturalism” to the society. The political system is also similar to the British Parliament system in which most of the seats are still dominated by the People’s Action Party (PAP). Taiwan was ceded to Japan as a colony from 1895 until the end of the Second World War. In 1949, the Communist Party took over Mainland China. Chiang, Kai-shek, who was the national leader at that time, moved the government to Taiwan, hoping to realize the ideal of reunification soon in the future. Since then, the sovereign debate between China and Taiwan has long been a sensitive and unsolvable ideological issue in the island and internationally. After almost four decades of development, in 1987, the Taiwanese government removed the Marshall Law. The process of a democratic political system has been blossoming through regular direct elections of legislators, mayors and a president. The two major political parties on the Island are Kuomingtang (KMT) and Democratic Progressive Party (DPP). In the 2000 presidential election, Taiwan experienced the first shifting of power (from KMT to DPP) and the ruling party alteration occurred again in the election of 2008 (from DPP to KMT). Compulsory Schooling and Language Policies In China, the official compulsory education is nine years since 1986. Mandarin classes (語文) are offered from Grade 1 to Grade 12. It is also one of the major subjects tested in all levels of entrance examinations. It is mandated that Mandarin (Putonghua 普通話) be the official language as well as the instructional language of teachers (普通 話是教師的職業語言). All the Mandarin language learning needs to be based on the foundation of Marxism (馬克思主義) and the respect of scientific teaching approach (科 學的教育原則) (Ministry of Educaiton, 2002). In Hong Kong compulsory education is also nine years. Like China, Mandarin classes are offered from Grade 1 to Grade 12. After Hong Kong returned to China in 1997, the language policy has become "bi-literate (English & Mandarin) and trilingual (plus Cantonese)" (兩文三語). Therefore, Mandarin is also tested as a subject in the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE, 香港中學會考) since 2000. Teachers are required to teach in Mandarin during classes. In order to promote the concept of “reading for pleasure and for learning, ” the Hong Kong government has begun to implement a － 69 － Yi-Jung Wu series of literacy programs in 5th and 6th grades, including the establishment of classroom libraries and central libraries in every primary school (Kam, 2007). In Singapore everyone should receive at least six years of compulsory education. English is the instructional language in classrooms. Since Singaporean society is heterogeneous with several major languages (English, Mandarin, Malay and Tamil) being used, the government has long implemented the Compulsory bilingual language policy started in 1966 at the primary level. In 2005, the National Library Board also launched an annual nationwide reading campaign in different languages to promote good reading habits and a friendly reading environment in all families across all ethnicities (Singapore