History Indonesia PAGES 13/2/03 8:28 AM Page i A SHORT HISTORY OF INDONESIA History Indonesia PAGES 13/2/03 8:28 AM Page ii Short History of Asia Series Series Editor: Milton Osborne Milton Osborne has had an association with the Asian region for over 40 years as an academic, public servant and independent writer. He is the author of eight books on Asian topics, including Southeast Asia: An Introductory History, first published in 1979 and now in its eighth edition, and, most recently, The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future, published in 2000. History Indonesia PAGES 13/2/03 8:28 AM Page iii A SHORT HISTORY OF INDONESIA THE UNLIKELY NATION? Colin Brown History Indonesia PAGES 13/2/03 8:28 AM Page iv First published in 2003 Copyright © Colin Brown 2003 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10 per cent of this book, whichever is the greater, to be photocopied by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) under the Act. Allen & Unwin 83 Alexander Street Crows Nest NSW 2065 Australia Phone: (61 2) 8425 0100 Fax: (61 2) 9906 2218 Email: [email protected] Web: www.allenandunwin.com National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Brown, Colin, A short history of Indonesia : the unlikely nation? Bibliography. Includes index. ISBN 1 86508 838 2 1. Indonesia—History. I. Title. (Series : Short histories of Asia). 959.4 Index compiled by Russell Brooks. Set in 11/14 pt Goudy by Midland Typesetters, Maryborough, Victoria Printed by South Wind Productions, Singapore 10987654321 History Indonesia PAGES 13/2/03 8:28 AM Page v For Christopher and Meily. This is their story, more than it is mine. History Indonesia PAGES 13/2/03 8:28 AM Page vi History Indonesia PAGES 3/3/03 1:53 PM Page vii CONTENTS Acknowledgements ix Maps of Indonesia xi Acronyms xiv Glossary xvi Note on transcription xviii 1 The Indonesian context 1 What’s in a name? 2 The physical environment 5 The ethnographic environment 9 2 The rise of states: 1–1500 CE 11 The rise of the state 13 Hindu and Buddhist societies 17 3 The age of commerce: 1400–1700 29 The spread of Islam 31 The beginnings of colonialism 32 4 Economic demise, political decline: 1600–1800 49 Extension of VOC control 55 Decline of Mataram 57 The Chinese War, 1740–1741 60 The Company outside Java 65 The collapse of the VOC 68 The legacy of the VOC 70 5 Establishment of empire: 1800–1900 72 Colonial reactions 81 The Cultivation System 83 Liberal Era 89 East coast of Sumatera 91 Aceh 96 The Aceh War 99 vii History Indonesia PAGES 13/2/03 8:28 AM Page viii A Short History of Indonesia The other islands 101 The colonial infrastructure 102 6 Times of change: 1900–1945 104 Japanese administration 140 7 From revolution to authoritarian rule: 1945–1957 156 8 Guided to Pancasila democracy: 1956–1998 185 The rise of the New Order government 197 New Order foreign policy 208 The New Order and East Timor 209 Separatism in Aceh 212 Economic developments under Suharto 218 Restraints on the exercise of power 223 9 Reformasi: The post-Suharto era? 225 Bibliographical essay 247 Endnotes 260 Index 263 viii History Indonesia PAGES 13/2/03 8:28 AM Page ix Acknowledgements The author of any book acquires a mountain of debts, both academic and social. I am no exception. The first draft of this book was written in the second half of 2000, while I was on study leave from Flinders University. For part of this time, I was a Visiting Fellow at the International Institute for Asian Studies in Leiden, the Netherlands. I gratefully acknowledge the warm collegial support I received during my stay there, from the Director Professor W. A. L. Stokhof and all his colleagues. I also spent several weeks in the Faculty of Social and Political Sciences at Parahyangan University, Bandung, Indonesia. I have been visiting Parahyangan regularly for some years now; once again, staff and students there made me feel most welcome. I thank in particular the Rector of the University, Professor B. Suprapto Brotosiswojo, the Deputy Rector for Academic Affairs, Mr Johannes Gunawan, the Deputy Rector for International Cooperation, Dr R. W. Triweko, and the then Dean of the Faculty, Dr Pius Suratman Kartasasmita. Griffith University, where I first taught Indonesian history, pro- vided me with office and library facilities for the final part of my leave. I thank Professor Nick Knight, Dean of the Faculty of Asian and International Studies, and Professor Colin Mackerras. At Flinders University, I have had the good fortune to work with a number of very talented scholars. I must single out Dr Jim Schiller, with whom I have co-taught courses and co-supervised postgraduate students, for his willingness to discuss almost any aspect of Indonesia, and his deep knowledge of and feeling for the country. We have not always agreed on interpretation of events, but I have always admired and respected the persuasive ways in which he makes his points. I also acknowledge the students I have taught, and debated with, at Griffith University, the University of Tasmania, Parahyangan Uni- versity and Flinders University. It is almost a cliché to say so, but I ix History Indonesia PAGES 13/2/03 8:28 AM Page x A Short History of Indonesia have learned as much from these students as I have taught them. I have also enjoyed many debates and discussions about their country with Indonesian students in Adelaide, testing their patience at times, I know, by my inability to see things in quite the same way they do. I thank them. Outside the academic world, I thank colleagues in the Australia Indonesia Business Council for making me think and re-think my understandings of Indonesia in response to their questions and challenges. I am grateful, also, to the Grey Hounds for their probing queries about matters Indonesian. And finally, of course, I acknowledge the enormous debt I owe to my wife Iem, who started me on the long road to learning Indonesian, and who has shared with me so freely her knowledge of Indonesia, and her commitment to it. Like many others in similar positions, she has sacrificed her own academic career to support me in mine, and done so without demur. Needless to say, however, while I am grateful for all that the people mentioned above have taught me, responsibility for errors and omissions in this book rests with me alone. x History Indonesia SOUTH PACIFIC CHINA OCEAN PAGES SABANG I SEA 13/2/03 Map 1: Physical features St ra SUMATERA it Batak NATUNA IS. 8:28 of Highlands M ela ka MOROTAI AM RIAU ARCH. Minah assa Pen. TERNATE HALMAHERA t i TIDORE EQUATOR Page a r B t ata Maha S BIAK ng kam r Minangkabau r a H ve KALIMANTAN R s ari Ri s Highlands BANGKA a r MALUKU IS. xi e k v a M i u R si M R o i t Barisan ver i SULAWESI r SERAM Mountains a B PAPUAN/IRIAN AMBON JAVA SEA BURU BANDA r Toraja e Mt Krakatau 813m BUTON v i Highlands R it KEI IS. a l tr DURA BANDA SEA a S g u und Di S JAVA MA K Bengawan Solo MBO Priangan RES Highlands Kedu Plain Brantas R LO BALI SUMBAWA LO INDIAN Dieng F Plateau Mt Merapi 2800m Mt Agung 3142m OCEAN TIMOR ARAFURA SEA 0 1000 KILOMETRES TIMOR SEA Volcano Wallace Line History Indonesia PAGES Aceh Map 2: Classical Pasai 13/2/03 Pidie LANGKAT and colonial Medan DELI 8:28 Menado AM Bonjol Tondano Ternate Page Padang Pontianak Jambi xii Palembang Serdang Bengkulu Banjarmasin Ambon Demak Jepara Banten Sem Surakarta Makassar Bone Batang ar Tanahmerah Batavia ang Rembang Cirebon Tuban Pekalongan Sidayu Dieng Plat. BOROBODUR Gresik Surabaya Yogyakarta Kediri Pasuruan Besuki Prambanan Kartasura Mataram 0 1000 KILOMETRES Area controlled by Srivijaya History Indonesia PHILIPPINES PAGES Aceh Lhockseumawe 13/2/03 MALAYSIA Map 3: Modern Times Medan 8:28 SINGAPORE AM Bukittinggi Ternate Page Pontianak Padang Gorontalo Samarinda Jambi Balikpapan Sorong xiii BANGKA Kotawringin Poso Palembang Jayapura Palangkaraya Bengkulu Banjarmasin AMBON Jakarta Ujung Padang Bandung (Makassar) Sukabumi Pekalongan Linggajati Tegal Batang PNG Surabaya Madiun Merauke Dili Den EAST TIMOR Pasar Suai Kupang 0 1000 KILOMETRES AUSTRALIA History Indonesia PAGES 13/2/03 8:28 AM Page xiv Acronyms ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations BCE Before Current Era CE Current Era DOM Daerah Operasi Militer (Military Operations Area) FDI Foreign Direct Investment GAM Gerakan Aceh Merdaka (Free Aceh Movement) GAPI Gabungan Politik Indonesia (Indonesian Political Federation) Gerindo Gerakan Rakyat Indonesia (Indonesia People’s Movement) GDP Gross Domestic Product Golkar Golongan Karya (Functional Groups) ICMI Ikatan Cendekiawan Muslin Indonesia (League of Indonesian Muslim Intellectuals) INTERFET International Force for East Timor ISDV Indische Sociaal-Democratische Vereeniging (Indies Social Democratic Association) KADIN Kamar Dagang dan Industri (Chamber of Commerce and Industry) KNIL Koninklijk Nederlandsch Indisch Leger (Royal Netherlands Indies Army) KNIP Komite Nasional Indonesia Pusat (Indonesian Central National Committee) MIAI Majelis Islam A’laa Indonesia (All-Indonesian Muslim Congress) MPR Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (People’s Consultative Assembly) NHM Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij (Netherlands