AN ECONOMIC HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES SUGAR PROGRAM by Tyler James Wiltgen A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Applied Economics MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY Bozeman, Montana August 2007 © COPYRIGHT by Tyler James Wiltgen 2007 All Rights Reserved ii APPROVAL of a thesis submitted by Tyler James Wiltgen This thesis has been read by each member of the thesis committee and has been found to be satisfactory regarding content, English usage, format, citations, bibliographic style, and consistency, and is ready for submission to the Division of Graduate Education. Chair Vincent H. Smith Approved for the Department of Agricultural Economics and Economics Myles J. Watts Approved for the Division of Graduate Education Carl A. Fox iii STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a master’s degree at Montana State University, I agree that the Library shall make it available to borrowers under rules of the Library. If I have indicated my intention to copyright this thesis by including a copyright notice page, copy is allowed for scholarly purposes, consistent with “fair use” as prescribed in U.S. Copyright Law. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this thesis in whole or in parts may be granted only by the copyright holder. Tyler James Wiltgen August 2007 iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am greatly indebted to Dr. Vincent Smith, my thesis committee chairman, for his guidance throughout the development of this thesis; I appreciate all of his help and support. In addition, I would like to thank the other members of the committee, Dr. Randy Rucker and Dr. Gary Brester, for their thoughtful suggestions and direction. A project of this magnitude would not be possible without the support of my grandparents, Marty and Virginia Swandal, who kept me grounded and sane throughout this process. My sister Karalee also deserves many thanks. Most importantly, I would like to thank my parents, Art and Karie for giving me the encouragement and strength needed to achieve my goals. Their support means the world to me. v TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................1 2. WORLD AND DOMESTIC SUGAR PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION, AND TRADE.................................................................................................................6 World Production and Consumption .............................................................................7 United States Production, Consumption, and Trade......................................................9 United States Sugar Beet and Cane Production..........................................................13 3. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE UNITED STATES SUGAR PROGRAM..................................................................................................................18 4. SUGAR POLICY INSTRUMENTS.............................................................................24 Import Controls............................................................................................................24 Domestic Production Controls.....................................................................................35 Price Support Loans.....................................................................................................36 Other Sugar Program Policies......................................................................................41 5. IMPACTS OF MONOPSONY ON THE UNITED STATES SUGAR INDUSTRY .................................................................................................................44 Sources of Monopsony Power .....................................................................................44 A Monopsony Model of Sugar Beet Production..........................................................45 Monopsony Effects Under Trade.................................................................................48 Monopsony Effects on Market with Trade Barriers ....................................................50 Monopsony as a Motivation for Vertical Integration ..................................................53 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................56 6. FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN SUGAR POLICY:...................................................57 7. SUBSEQUENT SUGAR LEGISLATION: HEARINGS REVIEW............................66 The Sugar Act of 1948.................................................................................................66 Sugar in the 1977 Farm Bill.........................................................................................72 Sugar in the 1981 Farm Bill.........................................................................................75 Sugar in the 2002 Farm Bill.........................................................................................79 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................80 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS - CONTINUED 8. CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................82 Policy Implications ......................................................................................................85 BIBLIOGRAPHY..............................................................................................................87 APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................90 APPENDIX A: United States Versus World Raw Sugar Prices..................................91 APPENDIX B: United States Sugar Program Marketing Allotments.........................93 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Raw Sugar Import Quotas and Imports, 1982-2005. ...............................................32 2. Statistics for the Sugar Nonrecourse Loan Program................................................41 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. World sugar production, consumption and prices .....................................................8 2. United States sugar production and imports ............................................................10 3. United States sugar consumption, 1949-2005. ........................................................12 4. U.S. versus world raw sugar prices, 1929-2006 in 2006 dollars .............................13 5. Beet versus cane sugar production, raw value, 1930-2006......................................14 6. Beet versus cane prices 1937-2005..........................................................................15 7. Beet versus cane manufacturing facility counts.......................................................16 8. The welfare effects of an import quota....................................................................25 9. Total U.S. sugar import quotas, 1934-1974.............................................................27 10. The welfare effects of a marketing allotment program..........................................36 11. The welfare effects of a non-recourse loan rate program. .....................................38 12. The three levels of the United States domestic sugar industry under sugar processor monopsony.........................................................................47 13. United States domestic sugar industry under sugar processor monopsony with trade............................................................................................49 14. United States domestic sugar industry under sugar processor monopsony with tariff equivalent. .........................................................................51 15. United States domestic sugar industry under sugar processor monopsony under a world price and a tariff equivalent. .......................................54 16. The United States sugar market under monopsony with a world sugar price close to the domestic price. .................................................................70 ix LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED) Figure Page 17. The United States sugar market under monopsony with a low world sugar price....................................................................................................72 18. The United States sugar market under monopsony with a high world sugar price....................................................................................................75 x ABSTRACT The United States Sugar Program has utilized tariffs, import quotas, domestic processor marketing allotments, and a non-recourse loan program to raise U.S. sugar prices. The intent of the program has been to increase the incomes of U.S. sugar beet and sugarcane producers and processors. This thesis analyzes world and domestic sugar market conditions surrounding major changes in the sugar program. A theoretical model is developed in which sugar beet processors are depicted as monopsonist purchasers of sugar beets as inputs into sugar production. This model suggests that incentives exist for sugar beet producers to vertically integrate into processing activities. It also shows that vertical integration incentives are greater in the presence of a tariff equivalent than in the absence of a tariff equivalent. The model, along with a review of Congressional hearings, is used to explain the lobbying pressures surrounding passage of major sugar program changes. The study shows