Managing technological aspects of Lupinus mutabilis from a food sovereignty perspective in Ecuador Francisco Ernesto CARVAJAL LARENAS Thesis committee Prof. Dr M.A.J.S. van Boekel Professor of Product Design and Quality Management Wageningen University Co-promotors Dr A.R. Linnemann Assistant professor, Food Quality and Design Wageningen University Dr M.J.R. Nout Associate professor, Laboratory of Food Microbiology Wageningen University Other members Prof. Dr G. Spaargaren, Wageningen University Dr L.F. Huybregts, Ghent University, Belgium Prof. Dr O. van Kooten, Wageningen University Dr A.W. van Heusden, Wageningen University This research was conducted under the auspices of the Graduate School VLAG (Advanced studies in Food Technology, Agrobiotechnology, Nutrition and Health Sciences). Managing technological aspects of Lupinus mutabilis from a food sovereignty perspective in Ecuador Francisco Ernesto CARVAJAL LARENAS Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. Dr. M.J. Kropff, in the presence of the Thesis committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Monday 28 October 2013 at 1.30 p.m. in the Aula. Francisco Ernesto CARVAJAL LARENAS Managing technological aspects of Lupinus mutabilis from a food sovereignty perspective in Ecuador 232 pages PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL (2013) With references, with summaries in Dutch and English ISBN: 978-94-6173-678-9 Contents Chapter 1 General introduction and thesis outline 07 Chapter 2 Lupinus mutabilis: composition, uses, toxicology and debittering 29 Chapter 3 Effect of processing on the diffusion of alkaloids and quality of Lupinus 105 mutabilis Chapter 4 Modeling of the aqueous debittering process of Lupinus mutabilis Sweet 129 Chapter 5 Liking and willingness to pay for Lupinus mutabilis Sweet in relation to 153 debittering Chapter 6 General discussion 177 Summary in English 197 Summary in Dutch (Samenvatting) 203 Acknowledgements 209 Bibliography and curriculum vitae of the author 213 Overview of completed training activities 219 Chapter 1 General introduction and thesis outline General introduction Introduction Global poverty and nutritional status In our day and age, the world population consists of almost 7 billion people (Hammond, 2007) and it will be a major challenge to feed them all. Poverty and malnutrition have been present for a long time and easy solutions do not exist. These two related issues, malnutrition and poverty, are first considered in more detail. They play a role in the background for the research described in this thesis, though they are not the direct subject of the thesis. Malnutrition “Malnutrition is a broad term that refers to all forms of poor nutrition. Malnutrition is caused by a complex array of factors, including dietary inadequacy (deficiencies, excesses or imbalances in energy, protein and micronutrients), infections, economics and socio-cultural factors. Malnutrition includes under-nutrition as well as overweight and obesity” (United Nations, 2010). Undernutrition is when insufficient food intake and repeated infections result in one or more of the following: underweight for age, short for age (stunted) and thin for height (wasted) (United Nations, 2010). However, the physical appearance is only one of the consequences because the intellectual capacity of children will also be affected, making them adults with limited capabilities, and therefore less competitive and with fewer opportunities. These adults will procreate undernourished children to continue the cycle. Data of global and regional malnutrition are presented in Table 1 and Figure 1. Undernutrition (as wasting) affected 925 million people of all ages in 2010 (United Nations, 2010), which was about 1 out of 7 persons. Note that undernutrition coexists with overweight, pointing at the necessity to correct imbalances. People are also considered to be undernourished when they suffer from vitamin and/or mineral deficiencies, so-called micronutrient malnutrition (United Nations, 2010). According to Céspedes (2007), regional adviser on micronutrients and nutrition of the World Food Program, more than 2 billion people are affected by micronutrient deficiencies in all developing countries. 9 Chapter 1 Table 1. Malnutrition prevalence for preschool children (data 2010) by geographic region1 Prevalence of Prevalence of Prevalence of Prevalence of stunted underweight for age wasting overweight Geographic region (short for age) (%) (%) (thin for height) (%) (%) Latin America & the Caribbean 13.4 3.5 1.4 7.1 Africa 35.6 17.9 8.5 7.1 Asia2 26.8 20.0 10.2 4.6 Oceania3 35.5 14.2 4.3 3.6 Developed countries 7.2 2.3 1.8 14.1 World 25.7 16.1 8.1 6.5 1 World Health Organization, 2013 2 Excluding Japan 3 Excluding Australia and New Zealand Figure 1. Undernutrition (as wasting) in 2010, by region (millions of people of all ages) 1 1 United Nations, 2010 From them, an estimated 163 million children are vitamin A deficient (by low serum retinol), with a prevalence of about 30% in South Central Asia (which includes India) and about 40% in Central and West Africa. South and Central America and the Caribbean have the lowest prevalence of the developing world, near to 10% (United Nations, 2010). 10 General introduction Table 2. Anaemia in selected population groups1 and prevalence of inadequate zinc intake2 per region Anaemia1 Zinc: Pre-SAC3 NPW3 PW3 prevalence of Region inadequate intake2 Prevalence No. affected Prevalence No. Prevalence No. (Range in (%) (millions) (%) affected (%) Affected %) (millions) (millions) (95 % C.I.)4 (95 % C.I.)4 (95% C.I.)4 (95% C.I.)4 (95% C.I.)4 (95 % C.I.)4 Africa 64.6 93.2 44.4 82.9 55.8 19.3 36.5- 61.6 (61.7, 67.5) (89.1, 97.4) (40.9, 47.8) (76.5, 89.0) (51.9, 59.6) (18.0, 20.7) Asia 47.7 170.0 33.0 318.3 41.6 31.7 33.5-72.5 (45.2, 50.3) (161.0, (31.3, 34.7) (302.0, (39.0, 44.2) (29.7, 33.6) 178.9) 334.6) Europe 16.7 6.1 15.2 26.6 18.7 1.4 3.9-12.7 (10.5, 23.0) (3.8, 8.4) (10.5, 19.9) (18.4, 34.9) (12.3, 25.1) (0.9, 1.8) 1 LAC5 39.5 22.3 23.5 33.0 31.1 3.6 26.0-68.4 (36.0, 43.0) (20.3, 24.3) (15.9, 31.0) (22.4, 43.6) (21.8, 40.4) (2.5, 4.7) NA5 3.4 0.8 7.6 6.0 6.1 0.3 6.3 (2.0, 4.9) (0.4, 1.1) (5.9, 9.4) (4.6, 7.3) (3.4, 8.8) (0.2, 0.4) (0-16.1)4 Oceania 28.0 0.7 20.2 1.5 30.4 0.2 N/A 6 (15.8, 40.2) (0.4, 1.0) (9.5, 30.9) (0.7, 2.4) (17.0, 43.9) (0.1, 0.2) 1 McLean et al., 2008 2 Caufield and Black, 2004 3 Pre-SAC, preschool-aged children (0.00–4.99 years); NPW, non-pregnant women (15.00–49.99 years); PW, pregnant women. 4 95% C.I. (confidence interval). 5 LAC, Latin America and the Caribbean; NA, Northern America. 6 Not available. Concerning anaemia, a prevalence of 24.8 % at global level has been reported, which means that about 1.6 billion people are affected. From them 163.8, 859.7 and 597.7 million people are elderly, adults and children (0.00–14.99 years), respectively (McLean et al., 2008). Regarding zinc deficiencies, there are no global data. However, the International Zinc Nutrition Consultative Group (IZiNCG) has estimated them based on the presence and bioavailability of zinc in each country‟s food supply. According to that technique, the global prevalence of zinc deficiency was estimated at 31%, which are about 2 billion people. However, the prevalence of zinc deficiency ranges from 4–73% across sub regions (Caufield and Black, 2004). Distribution of anaemia and zinc deficiency prevalence per region is presented in Table 2. Zinc deficiency prevalence affects especially the developing world. The available information indicates that any effort to improve the nutrition status globally or locally should be promoted and supported. 11 Chapter 1 Poverty and the role of agriculture So far it has not been possible to reach the first objective of the millennium “to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger”; there are still many people in that situation. In fact, in 2008 an estimated 2.47 billion people survived with less than 2 dollars per day (poverty) and 1.29 billion people even had less than 1.25 dollars per day (extreme poverty) (World Bank, 2012b). Poor people are predominantly located in Asia, Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean (FAO, 2012; Infante, 2009; Rojas, 2009). Poverty is also related to Gross Net Income (GNI) (Table 3). Table 3. Poverty, GNI and importance of agriculture by regions1 % of people % of people Employment in Agriculture. 3 with less than $ with less than $ GNI per capita agriculture as % of Value assed 2.0 / day (data 1.25 / day (data ($). (data for total employment (% of GDP) Regions2 for 2008) for 2008) 2011) (data for 2008) 2010 LAC (all income levels) N/A4 N/A 11,823 14.0 6.2 LAC (developing countries only) 5.5 3.3 11,586 14.1 6.4 MENA (all income levels) N/A N/A 10,8655 22.9 7.46 MENA (developing countries only) 3.2 0.6 8,0267 27.2 10.56 SSA (all income levels) N/A N/A 2,251 N/A 11.2 SSA (developing countries only) 35.2 20.6 2,232 N/A 11.2 CAR 46.8 31.3 810 N/A 56.57 EAP (all income levels) N/A N/A 10,405 36.0 3.4 EAP (developing countries only) 11.1 3.4 7,312 39.6 11.2 ECA (all income levels) N/A N/A 25,128 9.1 1.9 ECA (developing countries only) 0.6 0.2 14,178 16.4 7.2 World 36.08 19.08 11,573 N/A 2.8 1 World Bank, 2010b and World Bank, 2010a 2 LAC Latin-American & Caribbean, MENA Middle East & North Africa, SSA Sub-Sahara Africa, CAR Central African Republic, EAP East Asia & Pacific, ECA Europe & Central Asia.