NSS I , 'Reference^^ ^ NAT'L INST. OF STAND & TECH SIR 82-2480 AlllOb EST715 .ne-Based Capabilities of Occupants to Escape Fires in Public Buildings: A Review of Code Provisions and Technical Literature U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE National Bureau of Standards National Engineering Laboratory Center for Building Technology Washington, DC 20234 April 1982 Prepared for: Home and Public Building Safety Division — QC U.S. Fire Administration Federal Emergency Management Agency 100 Washington, DC 20472 .056 ci2-2460 1902 JIA.T10MA1. BUKBAb <Ur tTAKDABVI UBMAXT MAY 17 1982 NBSIR 82-2480 Ho t Clcc - TIME-BASED CAPABILITIES OF ,/ OCCUPANTS TO ESCAPE FIRES IN ! . PUBLIC BUILDINGS: A REVIEW OF CODE PROVISIONS AND TECHNICAL LITERATURE Fred I. Stahl James J. Crosson Stephen T. Margulis U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE National Bureau of Standards National Engineering Laboratory Center for Building Technology Washington, DC 20234 April 1982 Prepared for; Home and Public Building Safety Division U.S. Fire Administration Federal Emergency Management Agency Washington, DC 20472 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS viii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY lx 1. INTRODUCTION I 1.1 Problem 1 1.2 Objective and Scope 2 1.3 Organization of the Report 3 1.4 Technical Approach 4 1.4.1 Study Design and Task Organization 4 1.4.2 Literature Review 5 1.4.3 Behavioral Assumptions Peer Review Procedures 5 1 . 5 Summary 6 2.2.2 2. PROVISIONS AFFECTING PRE-EMERGENCY TRAINING AND PREPARATION 7 2.1 Applicable Code Provisions 7 2.2 Underlying Behavioral Assumptions 7 Assumptions Relating to the Transfer of Responses Learned During Drills to Actual Fire Situations B 2.3 Commentary 8 2.3.1 Problem 8 2.3.2 Underlying Behavioral Models 9 2.3.3 Assessment of Behavioral Assumptions Based on the Technical Literature 13 2.4 Summary of Gaps In the Technical Literature 18 2.4.1 Research on the Predictions of Occupants' Responses During Real Fires 18 2.4.2 Research on the Transfer of Training 19 2.4.3 Research on Occupants' Attitudes Toward Exit Drills .... 19 2.4.4 Research on the Accommodation of Training Programs to Specific Occupancy Requirements 19 2.5 Summary 20 3. PROVISIONS AFFECTING THE PERCEPTION OF THE EMERGENCY ENVIRONMENT AND THE RECOGNITION OF EGRESS FACILITIES 21 3.1 Applicable Code Provisions 21 3.2 Underlying Behavioral Assumptions 22 3.2.1 Assumptions Relating to the Effect of Door and Window Design Upon Egress Route Perception 22 3.2.2 Assumptions Relating to the Affect of Illumination Level Upon Egress Route Identification 23 3.2.3 Assumption Relating to the Role of Visual Signage and Directional Information In Egress Route Recognition and the Formation of Emergency Egress Strategies 23 ill TABLE OF CONTENTS 3.2.4 Page Assumptions Relating to the Ability of Audible and Visual Alarm Signals to Effectively Alert Building Occupants to a Fire Threat 24 3.3 Commentary 24 3.3.1 Problem 24 3.3.2 Underlying Behavioral Models 24 3.3.3 Assessment of Behavioral Assumptions Based on the Technical Literature 31 3 .4 Summary of Gaps in the Technical Literature 38 3.4.1 Research on the Effects of Door and Window Design 38 3.4.2 Research on Illumination Required for Egress Route Identification 38 3.4.3 Research on Directional Signage 39 3.4.4 Research on Alarm Signals 39 3.5 4.2.2Summary 39 4. PROVISIONS AFFECTING EGRESS STRATEGY FORMATION 40 4.1 Applicable Code Provisions 40 4.2 Underlying Behavioral Assumptions 40 Assumptions Relating to Occupants' Abilities to Determine the Safest and Most Accessible Escape Route Under Potentially Stressful Conditions 40 4.3 Commentary 41 4.3.1 Problem 41 4.3.2 Underlying Behavioral Models 41 4.3.3 Assessment of Behavioral Assumptions Based on the Technical Literature 46 4.4 Summary of Gaps in the Technical Literature 52 4.5 Summary 54 5. PROVISIONS AFFECTING DISCIPLINED EGRESS BEHAVIOR AND CROWD MOVEMENT 55 5.1 Applicable Code Provisions 55 5.2 Underlying Behavioral Assumptions 56 5.2.1 Assumptions Concerning the Influence of Designated Leaders Upon Egress Time During Fire Emergencies 56 5.2.2 Assumptions Concerning Pedestrian Movement Under High Density Occupancy Conditions 56 5.2.3 Assumptions Concerning the Effects of Building Configuration and Architectural Obstructions on Efficient Crowd Movement 56 5.3 Commentary 56 5.3.1 Problem 56 5.3.2 Underlying Behavioral Models 57 5.3.3 Assessment of Behavioral Assumptions Based on the Technical Literature 61 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page 5 .4 Summary of Gaps in the Technical Literature 66 5.4.1 Research on the Effectiveness of Trained Leaders in Facilitating Rapid Emergency Escape and in Avoiding "Panic" 66 5.4.2 Research on the Effects of Occupant Loading and Discharge Behavior on Successful Crowd Movement 67 5.4.3 Research on the Effects of Architectural Impediments and Physical Obstacles Upon Crowd Behavior and Disciplined Movement 67 5 .5 Summary 68 6. PROVISIONS ACCOMMODATING OCCUPANT’S CAPABILITIES TO SAFELY AND RAPIDLY NEGOTIATE EGRESS WAYS 69 6.1 Applicable Code Provisions 69 6.2 Underlying Behavioral Assumptions 71 6.2.1 Assumptions Relating to the Effects of Stair and Ramp Design on Occupants' Capabilities to Safely and Rapidly Negotiate Egress Ways 71 6.2.2 Assumptions Relating to the Effects of Physiological and Psychological Stress Upon Occupants' Capabilities to Safely and Rapidly Negotiate Egress Ways 72 6.2.3 Assumptions Relating to the Biomechanics of Exit Door Operation 72 6.3 Commentary 73 6.3.1 Problem 73 6.3.2 Underlying Behavioral Models 73 6.3.3 Assessment of the Behavioral Assumptions Based Upon the Technical Literature 78 6.4 Summary of Gaps in the Technical Literature 86 6.4.1 Research on the Affect of Stair and Ramp Design on Occupants' Capabilities to Safely and Rapidly Negotiate Egressways 86 6.4.2 Research on the Affect of Stress and Fatigue on Occupants' Capabilities to Safely and Rapidly 7.2.1 Negotiate Egressways 87 6.4.3 Research on the Effects of Doorway and Door Hardware on Occupants' Capabilities to Safely and Rapidly Negotiate Egressways 88 6.5 Summary 88 7. PROVISIONS GOVERNING THE CAPACITY OF MEANS OF EGRESS 90 7.1 Applicable Code Provisions 90 7.2 Underlying Behavioral Assumptions 92 Assumptions Pertaining to the Influence of Architectural Barriers and Other Obstructions to Egress Flow 92 V TABLE OF CONTENTS Page 7 .3 Commentary 93 7.3.1 Problem 93 7.3.2 Underlying Behavioral Models 9A 7.3.3 Assessment of Behavioral Assumptions Based on the Technical Literature 98 7.4 Summary of Gaps in the Technical Literature Ill 7.4.1 Research on the Influence of Architectural Barriers and Other Potential Obstructions to Egress Flow ........ Ill 7.4.2 Research on the Flow Capacity of Egress Channels 112 7.5 Summary 112 8. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 113 8.1 Selection of Code Provisions 113 8.2 Underlying Behavioral Assumptions 114 8.3 Technical Commentaries 115 8.3.1 Problem Statements 115 8.3.2 Behavioral Models 117 8.3.3 Assessment of Behavioral Assumptions Based on the Technical Literature 119 8.4 Summary of Gaps in the Technical Literature 128 8.4.1 Overview 128 8.4.2 Pre-emergency Training and Preparation 128 8.4.3 Perception of the Emergency Environment, and Recognition of Egress Facilities 129 8.4.4 Egress Strategy Formation 130 8.4.5 Disciplined Egress Behavior and Crowd Movement 130 8.4.6 Occupants’ Capabilities to Safely and Rapidly Negotiate Egress Ways 131 8.4.7 The Capacity of Means of Egress 131 8.5 Conclusions 132 8.5.1 Overview 132 8.5.2 Provisions Affecting Pre-emergency Training and Preparation 132 8.5.3 Provisions Affecting Perception of the Emergency Environment, and Recognition of Egress Facilities 133 8.5.4 Provisions Affecting Egress Strategy Formation 133 8.5.5 Provisions Affecting Disciplined Egress Behavior and Crowd Movement 133 8.5.6 Provisions Accommodating Occupants' Capabilities to Safely and Rapidly Negotiate Egress Ways 134 8.5.7 Provisions Governing the Capacity of Means of Egress 134 REFERENCES 135 APPENDIX A: MEMBERS OF PEER REVIEW PANEL A-1 APPENDIX B: INSTRUCTIONS TO REVIEWERS B-1 vi ABSTRACT This document reviews available technical literature pertaining to exit facility design and emergency escape provisions of the National Fire Protection Associa- tion's Life Safety Code (1976 Edition) in order to determine the technical sup- port for such provisions. The report focuses on the time-based capabilities of building occupants to effect rapid evacuations, in relation to evacuation time available during fires, A number of functional criteria are examined in rela- tion to Code provisions influencing the design of means of egress and fire pro- tection and protective signalling systems for places of assembly, residential occupancies, mercantile occupancies, and business occupancies. Provisions affecting fire exit drill and building management practices are also considered. The technical literature bearing on applicable Code provisions is reviewed, the validity and generalizability of findings presented in the literature are discussed, and the degree of technical support currently available for egress provisions of the Code are evaluated. In addition, gaps in the technical litera- ture are identified, and recommendations regarding future research are offered. Finally, preliminary conclusions about the supportability of Code provisions are presented. vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The successful completion of so large an undertaking necessarily involves contributions by many capable people The authors particular express their gratitude to the following individuals, whose technical assistance and insight were of Immeasurable value during the early stages of the project: Mr.