CChildrenhildren aandnd AAdolescentsdolescents iinn UUrbanrban IIndiandia SScalecale aandnd NNatureature ooff DDeprivationeprivation AAnn EEmpiricalmpirical AAnalysisnalysis April 2020 Supported by: National Institute of Urban Affairs CChildrenhildren aandnd AAdolescentsdolescents iinn UUrbanrban IIndiandia SScalecale aandnd NNatureature ooff DDeprivationeprivation AAnn EEmpiricalmpirical AAnalysisnalysis April 2020 Supported by: Prepared by: National Institute of Urban Affairs Foreword Urban India is home to the largest number of children and adolescents in the world. They have a significant contribution in determining the developmental trajectory of urban India. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations recognise early childhood and adolescence as a significant phase of development throughout the lifespan of an individual, which forms the basis of later life outcomes. In fact, SDGs on poverty (goal 1), zero hunger (goal 2), good health and well-being (goal 3), quality education (goal 4), gender equality (goal 5), clean water and sanitation (goal 6), reduced inequality (goal 10), sustainable cities and communities (goal 11) are directly linked to the overall development of children and adolescents. Achievement of these goals would be a positive move towards the implementation of the ‘New Urban Agenda’ (Habitat III, 2016), leaving no one behind in the process of development. The principle is that cities need to invest in their clusters of human capital. At this juncture, it is important to understand the scale and nature of deprivation among children and adolescents in India. The United Nations Children’s Fund (Delhi office) has entered into a research collaboration with National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA). Under this collaboration, this research study titled ‘Scale and Nature of Deprivation among Children and Adolescents in Urban India: An Empirical Analysis’ has been undertaken. The broad objective of this study is to assess the situation of children and adolescents across various thematic areas like survival and health, nutrition, water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), education, employment, violence and crime, exposure to mass media/social media/internet for children and adolescents living in urban India. This report is the outcome of a year-long research project undertaken by a team of researchers at NIUA. I firmly believe that the findings from this report will ignite a fresh public discourse and pave the path for achieving the SDGs. The success of this endeavour will entirely depend on how the findings from this report are used in making policies more inclusive and evidence based to improve the status of disadvantaged children and adolescents. Hitesh Vaidya Director, NIUA Children and Adolescents in Urban India - Scale and Nature of Deprivation iii Acknowledgement I am grateful to Ms. Foroogh Foyouzat, Deputy Representative (Programme), UNICEF, and Ms. Misaki Akasaka Ueda, Chief of Social Policy, Monitoring and Evaluation, UNICEF, for entrusting NIUA with this research study titled ‘Scale and Nature of Deprivation Among Children and Adolescents in Urban India: An Empirical Analysis’. I wish to sincerely thank Mr. Kanchan Dyuti Maiti, Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation Specialist, UNICEF, Delhi, for his constant support and valuable comments at every stage of the study. Thanks are also due to all Programme Chiefs of UNICEF for their guidance and to all team members Social Policy, Monitoring Evaluation Section, UNICEF, for their support throughout the study. I would like to acknowledge the valuable inputs and feedback received from Prof. R.B. Bhagat, Prof. K.S. James, Prof. Bhaskar Mittra, Prof. Saraswati Raju, Prof. Ravi Srivastava and Prof. J.B.G. Tilak. Special mention is due to Prof. Indrani Bhaduri, Dr. Srinivas Goli, Prof. Sachidanand Sinha and Mr. Varghese Kunjappy for their suggestions in improving the quality of research. This research is the result of team work. I deeply acknowledge the efforts of the research, design and finance teams at NIUA. A special thanks to Mr. Jagan Shah, former Director, NIUA, for initiating this research. Last but not the least, we are grateful to Mr. Hitesh Vaidya, Director, NIUA, for his constant encouragement and support. Debolina Kundu Professor, NIUA Children and Adolescents in Urban India - Scale and Nature of Deprivation v Team Leader Debolina Kundu Research Rakesh Mishra Biswajit Kar Tania Debnath Arvind Pandey Varsha Pandey Ankita Shukla Rayhan SK Management Pragya Sharma Data Support Sangeeta Vijh T. C. Sharma Copy Editing Razia Grover Design Team Deep Pahwa Devender S Rawat Bhavnesh Bhanot Preeti Shukla Contents Foreword iii Acknowledgement v List of Tables ix List of Figures x List of Boxes xvi List of Annexures xvi Acronyms xvii Technical Notes xix Executive Summary xxiv 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Rationale 2 1.3 Profile of Children and Adolescents in Urban India 5 1.4 Conceptual Framework 9 1.5 Research Questions 9 1.6 Research Objectives 9 1.7 Database 11 1.8 Methodology 17 1.9 Limitations 19 2. Health and Survival 21 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Data and Methods 22 2.3 Situational Analysis of Health and Well-being of Children 22 2.4 Major Health Challenges Among Children 25 2.5 Situational Analysis of Adolescent Health 37 2.6 Association Between Diarrhoea, Malnutrition and IMR 43 2.7 Macro Level Analysis 43 2.8 Data Limitation 46 2.9 Conclusion 47 2.10 Policy Implications 48 3. Nutrition 51 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Data and Methods 52 3.3 Variations in Malnutrition among Children 52 3.4 Deficiency of Micro-Nutrients Among Children 56 3.5 Interlinkages Among Indicators of Malnutrition 59 3.6 Exclusive Breastfeeding Practices 61 3.7 Complementary Feeding Practices 64 3.8 Malnutrition Among Adolescents 69 3.9 Macro Level Analysis 74 3.10 Conclusion and Policy Implications 76 4. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Facilities 79 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Data and Methods 81 4.3 Utilisation of Basic Drinking Water 81 4.4 Utilisation of Basic Sanitation Facilities 89 4.5 Hygienic Practices: Basic Handwashing Facility within Premises 95 4.6 Menstrual Hygiene 98 4.7 Conclusion 101 4.8 Policy Implication 102 5. Education 105 5.1 Introduction 105 5.2 Access: Attendance Status in School 106 5.3 Achievement in Learning Outcomes 117 5.4 Transition 123 5.5 Completion of Education Levels 125 5.6 Expenditure by Households on Education 129 5.7 Reasons for Not Attending School 133 5.8 Household Expenditure and Achievement in Learning 135 5.9 Ability to Use Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Tools 137 5.10 Data Gaps and Limitations 140 5.11 Conclusion 140 5.12 Policy Concerns and Recommendations 141 6. Employment and Migration 145 6.1 Introduction 145 6.2 Activity Status: Being in the Workforce, Pursuing Education and Being ‘Nowhere’ 147 6.3 Nature of Work 159 6.4 Employment-related Migration and Work Among Children (5-14 years) and Adolescents (15-19 years) 167 6.5 Data Gap 171 6.6 Legislative Framework and Policies 171 6.7 Conclusion 172 6.8 Policy Recommendations 173 7. Crimes Involving Children and Adolescents 175 7.1 Introduction 175 7.2 Data and Methods 177 7.3 Crime Against Children in India 178 7.4 Circumstances of Crime Occurrences and Reasons 186 7.5 Crimes Committed by Children 188 7.6 Conclusion 191 7.7 Policy Recommendations 192 8. Conclusion and Policy Recommendations 195 8.1 Introduction 195 8.2 Main Findings 196 8.3 Policy Recommendations 199 8.4 Holistic Development of Urban Children and Adolescents: Way Forward 202 Bibliography 204 Annexures 212 List of Tables Table 1.1: Details of Data Sources 11 Table 1.2: Data Sources for Analysis of Health and Survival 12 Table 1.3: Data Sources for Analysis of Nutrition 14 Table 1.4: Data Sources for Analysis of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) 15 Table 1.5: Data Sources for Analysis of Education 15 Table 1.6: Data Sources for Analysis of Employment 16 Table 1.7: Data Sources for Analysis of Crime and Violence 17 Table 1.8: Selected Age Groups 18 Table 1.9: Research/Evaluation Questions and Detailed Methods 19 Table 2.1: Pooled Panel Regression Estimates: Effects of Demographic, Socio-economic and Programme Factors on Infant Mortality Rate and Selected Predictors 46 Table 3.1: Pooled Panel Regression Estimates: Effects of Demographic, Socio-economic and Programme Factors on Stunting Among Children Aged Below 3 Years 74 Table 3.2: Pooled Panel Regression Estimates: Effects of Demographic, Socio-economic and Programme Factors on Being Underweight Among Children Aged Below 3 Years 75 Table 5.1: Corresponding Age Groups for Various Levels of School Education 125 Table 7.1: Specific Situations and Reasons Related to Crime Against Children 186 Children and Adolescents in Urban India - Scale and Nature of Deprivation ix List of Figures Figure 1.1: State-wise Percentage Share of Children and Adolescents (0-19 years) in Total Urban Population, 2011 6 Figure 1.2: State-wise Percentage Share of Children (0-5 years) in Total Urban Population, 2011 6 Figure 1.3: State-wise Percentage Share of Adolescents (15-19 years) in Total Urban Population, 2011 7 Figure 1.4: Child (0-5 years) Sex Ratio (Females per 1,000 Males) in Urban India, 2011 7 Figure 1.5: Adolescent (15-19 years) Sex Ratio (Females per 1,000 Males) in Urban India, 2011 8 Figure 1.6: Child and Adolescent (0-19 years) Sex Ratio (Females per 1,000 Males) in Urban India, 2011 8 Figure 1.7: Conceptual Framework 10 Figure 1.8: Levels of Analysis 17 Figure 2.1: Change in Neonatal Mortality Rates (NNMR) in India, 2005-06 and 2015-16 23 Figure