THE POLITICS OF LANGUAGE CULTURAL IMPACTS OF LANGUAGE LOSS AND REVITALIZATION AMONG THE NEZ PERCE OF IDAHO: A CASE STUDY A Thesis Presented to the faculty of the Department of Anthropology California State University, Sacramento Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in Anthropology by Stefanie Lisa Adams SUMMER 2019 © 2019 Stefanie Lisa Adams ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii THE POLITICS OF LANGUAGE CULTURAL IMPACTS OF LANGUAGE LOSS AND REVITALIZATION AMONG THE NEZ PERCE OF IDAHO: A CASE STUDY A Thesis by Stefanie Lisa Adams Approved by: __________________________________, Committee Chair Joyce M. Bishop, Ph.D. __________________________________, Second Reader Raghuraman S. Trichur, Ph.D. ____________________________ Date iii Student: Stefanie Lisa Adams I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for the thesis. __________________________, Graduate Coordinator ___________________ Jacob L. Fisher, Ph.D. Date Department of Anthropology iv Abstract of THE POLITICS OF LANGUAGE CULTURAL IMPACTS OF LANGUAGE LOSS AND REVITALIZATION AMONG THE NEZ PERCE OF IDAHO: A CASE STUDY by Stefanie Lisa Adams Statement of Problem While several Native American languages have been the subject of previous studies, our understanding of the revitalization and preservation efforts concerning the Nez Perce language, Nimipuutímt, remains limited. Nimipuutímt is a member of the Sahaptian subfamily of the Plateau Penutian family of the Penutian language group. This thesis examines the cultural and political impacts of language loss and revitalization for Native American languages, focusing on the efforts of one specific tribe, the Nez Perce of Idaho, to revitalize their heritage language, Nimipuutímt. The research looks at the challenges affecting local language revitalization programs on the Nez Perce Reservation in Lapwai, Idaho, and offers some possible solutions to those challenges. It explores the relative effectiveness of various strategies in language revitalization and preservation and looks at several models of successful language revitalization. v Sources of Data This study was conducted in north central Idaho in the towns of Lapwai and Lewiston in March of 2017. Interviews with a variety of individuals and observations of several Nez Perce language classes were conducted at the Lapwai combined Middle/High School, the Lapwai Elementary School, the Tribal Community Center in Lewiston, Lewis-Clark State College, and the Nez Perce National Historic Park Visitor Center. Individuals observed or interviewed ranged in age from preschool children to tribal elders. Conclusions Reached In comparing the Nez Perce language revitalization program to other more well- established programs, it seems that the program, although in it’s early stages, is thriving and its future looks hopeful. Many of the teaching tools used by other similar programs are also being employed here. The language program is well received and supported by the entire community and although there is still much work yet to be done, the tireless efforts of the language coordinators and the elders, along with the support of the Lapwai Public School System and the enthusiasm of the students, indicate that the Nez Perce language revitalization program is on track for success. _______________________, Committee Chair Joyce M. Bishop, Ph.D. _______________________ Date vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I offer my heartfelt gratitude to the people of the Nez Perce Tribe for welcoming me onto the Nez Perce Reservation and into the classroom. Special thanks to Josiah Pinkham for helping me coordinate my entire trip and introducing me to key language educators for the Tribe, for speaking with me about his experiences with the language as well as important cultural aspects of the Tribe, and for giving me a tour of the culturally significant places on tribal land. Thank you to Thomas “Tatlo” Gregory for helping me through the research permit application process which allowed me to work with the Tribe, for welcoming me into his Nez Perce language classes at the combined Middle/High School in Lapwai, and for taking the time to sit and talk with me about his language experiences growing up and his experiences as one of the Nez Perce language coordinators for the Tribe. Thanks also to Angel Sobotta for allowing me to shadow her in her many Nez Perce language classes at the Preschool, the Elementary School, the combined Middle/High School, and at Lewis-Clark State College, and for being so open with me during our interview regarding her experiences with the language and her position as one of the Nez Perce language coordinators for the Tribe. Thank you to Dr. Harold Crook and elders Bessie Scott and Florene Davis for allowing me to sit in on several language sessions and advanced Nimipuutímt classes at Lewis-Clark State College and for speaking with me regarding their experiences with the language; to Dr. Alan Marshall for allowing me to interview him regarding his perspectives vii as the cultural anthropologist for the Tribe for the last forty years; to Lapwai combined Middle/High School principal, D’Lisa Pinkham, and Elementary School principal, Teri Wagner, for allowing my study to take place within their school walls. I am also grateful to all of the teachers and students who welcomed me into their classrooms and spoke with me about their language experiences, to Dr. Joyce Bishop for her guidance throughout this process, to Professor Emerita, Melissa Axelrod (University of New Mexico) for her many years of friendship and guidance and for fostering my passion for Native American languages, to Professor Kristina Casper-Denman (American River College) for reigniting my passion for cultural anthropology and Native American studies, to Melissa Ivie and Christopher Pulliam for introducing me to their contacts with the Nez Perce Tribe which allowed me to get my foot in the door, and to my mother and father for their love and support through all of my educational endeavors. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Acknowledgments...................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ............................................................................................................. xii List of Figures ........................................................................................................... xiii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1 Background ............................................................................................................ 2 Definition of Terms .......................................................................................... 6 Need for the Study ............................................................................................ 7 Limitations of the Study ................................................................................... 8 Organization of Thesis ...................................................................................... 9 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 9 2. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ....................................................................... 11 The Social, Cultural, and Political History of the Nez Perce .......................... 11 History of United States Laws and Policies .................................................... 19 Language Policies in the United States ........................................................... 25 3. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................. 28 Instrumentation ............................................................................................... 29 Setting of the Study ......................................................................................... 32 Design of the Study ........................................................................................ 36 ix 4. PERSONAL HISTORIES OF LOSS AND GAIN ................................................. 38 Josiah Blackeagle Pinkham: Tribal Ethnographer and Cultural Specialist .... 38 Thomas “Tatlo” Gregory: Nez Perce Language Coordinator ......................... 48 Angel Sobotta: Nez Perce Language Coordinator .......................................... 59 Tribal Elders: Bessie Scott, Florene Davis, and Gary Greene ........................ 66 Harold Crook, Ph.D.: Nez Perce Language Professor at Lewis-Clark State College .............................................................................................................69 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 71 5. THE NEZ PERCE CLASSROOM ......................................................................... 73 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 73 Classroom Practices ........................................................................................ 74 A. Sample Class .................................................................................. 74 B. Instructors’ Analysis of the Nimipuutímt Language Program ....... 84 C. Advanced Language Classes .......................................................... 91