IJTIHĀD AND ITS RELEVANCE TO MUSLIMS IN AUSTRALIA Thesis submitted to Charles Sturt University for the award of Doctor of Philosophy by Rawaa El Ayoubi Gebara M.A. (Syd), M.Admin. (USEK), Dip.Pract.Mgmt. (UNE) School of Theology Faculty of Arts Charles Sturt University July 2015 TABLE OF CONTENTS CERTIFICATE OF AUTHORSHIP ................................................................................ 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. 7 EDITORIAL ASSISTANCE ............................................................................................ 9 TRANSLATION AND TRANSLITERATION ............................................................. 11 GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS ...................................................................................... 13 ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................... 17 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 19 1.1 Background ........................................................................................................ 19 1.2 Review of Existing Literature ............................................................................ 20 1.3 Statement of the Problem and Significance ....................................................... 36 1.4 Objectives of the Study ...................................................................................... 37 1.5 Limitations of the Research ............................................................................... 37 1.6 Methodology, Sources and Thesis Structure ..................................................... 39 2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF IJTIHĀD IN ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE ................ 45 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 45 2.2 Historical Development of Sharīʿah .................................................................. 46 2.2.1 Primary Sources and Importance of Sharīʿah .............................................. 46 2.2.2 Evolution of Islamic Jurisprudence .............................................................. 57 2.3 The Meaning and Foundations of Ijtihād ........................................................... 63 2.4 A Contemporary Approach to Ijtihād and Maqāṣid .......................................... 68 2.5 Ijtihād and Fatwah: The Duality of Islamic Jurisprudence ............................... 72 2.6 The Relevance of Ijtihād for Muslims to the Contemporary Social Needs ....... 79 2.7 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 86 3 CONTEXTUALISING THE MUSLIM PRESENCE IN AUSTRALIA ................. 89 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 89 3.2 Islamophobia ...................................................................................................... 92 3.2.1 Islamophobia in Context .............................................................................. 92 3.2.2 Islamophobia in Australia ............................................................................ 96 3.3 History of Muslims in Australia ...................................................................... 101 3.4 Challenges faced by Muslims in Australia ...................................................... 107 3.4.1 General Challenges .................................................................................... 107 3.4.2 Specific Challenges .................................................................................... 113 1 3.5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 119 4 IDENTITY FORMATION OF MUSLIM WOMEN IN AUSTRALIA ................. 121 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 121 4.2 The Challenges facing Muslim women in Australia ........................................ 122 4.2.1 Challenging Identities in the Australian Multicultural Context ................. 126 4.2.2 The Challenges of Being a Muslim Woman among Stereotypes and Feminism Critiques .................................................................................... 146 4.3 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 171 5 ISLAM AND MODERNITY ................................................................................. 175 5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 175 5.2 Modernity and Religion ................................................................................... 176 5.3 Islam and the Challenges of Modernity ........................................................... 189 5.3.1 Liberal Reformists ..................................................................................... 194 5.3.2 Traditional Reformists ............................................................................... 198 5.3.3 Modern Reformists .................................................................................... 202 5.4 The Way Ahead in the Australian Context ...................................................... 208 5.5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 211 6 WHEN ISLAM AND DEMOCRACY MEET ....................................................... 215 6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 215 6.2 The Notion of Democracy ............................................................................... 219 6.3 The Constitution of Medina ............................................................................. 224 6.4 Muslim Scholars and Democracy .................................................................... 228 6.4.1 Liberal Muslims ......................................................................................... 229 6.4.2 Moderate Muslims ..................................................................................... 233 6.4.3 Traditionalist Muslim ................................................................................. 241 6.5 Maqāṣid as a Scheme for Human Rights ......................................................... 246 6.6 The Struggle for Democracy ............................................................................ 252 6.7 Islam and Democracy in Australia ................................................................... 256 6.8 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 259 7 A PLACE FOR ISLAMIC LAW IN AUSTRALIA’S LEGAL SYSTEM ............ 263 7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 263 7.2 The politics of democracy in Australian legal discourse ................................. 265 7.2.1 Liberal Secularism and Australia’s Constitution ....................................... 265 2 7.2.2 Does Democracy Demand Secularism? ..................................................... 271 7.3 The Recognition of Islamic Legal Principles in Liberal Democratic Societies .......................................................................................................... 276 7.3.1 Legal Pluralism .......................................................................................... 276 7.3.2 An International Debate about the Recognition of Islamic Law ............... 281 7.4 Why are Islamic Legal Principles Important for Muslims? ............................. 289 7.4.1 The Higher Objectives of Sharīʿah and the Bifurcation of Territories into Abodes ................................................................................................ 290 7.4.2 The Place of Islamic Law in Australia ....................................................... 298 7.4.3 A Need for Ijtihād ...................................................................................... 303 7.5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 311 8 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 315 8.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 315 8.2 The Nexus between Ijtihād and Maqāṣid al-Sharīʿah ..................................... 317 8.3 The Development of Muslim Identity in a Modern Multicultural Society ...... 322 8.4 Modernity and Democracy in the Australian Muslim Context ........................ 324 8.5 What about Muslim Women? .......................................................................... 326 8.6 The Issue of Accommodation of Islamic Law in Australia ............................. 328 8.7 Pioneering a Better Future ............................................................................... 329 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................... 333 3 CERTIFICATE OF AUTHORSHIP I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by