MISCELLANEA GEOGRAPHICA – REGIONAL STUDIES ON DEVELOPMENT Vol. 25 • No. 2 • 2021 • pp. 127-143 • ISSN: 2084-6118 • DOI: 10.2478/mgrsd-2020-0036 Challenges and perspectives for human activity in Arctic coastal environments – a review of selected interactions and problems Abstract The currently-observed increase in human activity in the Arctic accelerates Marek Wojciech Jaskólski 1,2,3 the negative impact on the environment as well as increases the risk of threats to mankind itself. This paper reviews and summarises a selection of studies on the interaction between humans and the environment in the Arctic coastal zone, which is impacted by a warming climate and 1Institute of Geography and Regional Development, associated geohazards. The paper presents a general description of University of Wrocław, Poland 2 human presence in the Arctic, identifies and describes the processes Leibniz Institute of Ecological Urban and Regional that are threatening the infrastructure, and the anthropogenic processes Development, Environmental Risks in Urban and Regional Development, Dresden, Germany that have a negative impact on the Arctic. It considers the possible future 3Interdisciplinary Centre for Ecological and Revitalizing economic opportunities, and presents the sustainable requirements for Urban Transformation, Görlitz, Germany modern human activity in the Arctic. The paper demonstrates the urgent e-mail: [email protected] need to develop a common, Arctic-wide strategy based on sustainable development. The time has come to change human perception of the Arctic because, in the near future, it may be considered as a refuge for climate change refugees. Keywords Arctic settlements • climate change • geohazards • environmental changes • anthropogenic impact • arctic sustainability Received: 20 May 2020 © University of Warsaw – Faculty of Geography and Regional Studies Accepted: 30 September 2020 Introduction The Arctic area, according to different definitions, is that area the increased supply of withdrawing glacier deposits (Strzelecki, north of the northern polar circle of 66° 33′ N, and bounded to the Małecki & Zagórski 2015; Bendixen et al. 2017; Bourriquen et al. 2018), north by the July isotherm of 10°C which is a crucial determinant which could lead to the shallowing of harbour basins (e.g. the old for the processes described in the text (Hotez 2010; Vavrus et al. Svea settlement coal port on Svalbard), and the extension of the 2012). This area contains among the most vulnerable ecosystems period without sea ice which causes increased exposure to storm in the world. In the context of global climate change, it is seen waves and accelerated coastal erosion (Jones et al. 2013; Zagórski also as a source of information for predicting environmental et al. 2015; Isaev et al. 2019). These intensified destructive activities change and methods of reconstruction at moderate latitudes directly threaten the Arctic coastal communities and hinder the (Bowden 2010; Francis &Vavrus 2012). The Arctic landscape is planning of new investments (Andrew 2014). Although the effects currently undergoing experiencing changes due to accelerated of Arctic warming require sustainable planning and management environmental and anthropogenic processes that both pose risks from decision-makers and investors (Wilson & Piper 2010), this issue and offer potential for human activity in the Arctic (Hjort et al. 2018; is still marginalised in public debate (Jaskólski et al. 2018a). Karjalainen et al. 2019). An estimated 3.6 to 4 million people live in the Arctic area (Bogoyavlensky 2004; Hjort et al. 2018) and human activity Objectives, Methods & Research area is concentrated mainly in the coastal zone, where the strongest The aim of this paper was to review and summarise the anthropogenic interactions with the environment occur (Forbes most important studies on the interaction between humans and 2011). Over the last 30 years, the Arctic climate has changed the environment in the Arctic coastal zone under the impact of the significantly, with the observed increase in temperature being warming climate and associated geohazards. twice the global average (Notz & Stroeve 2018; Lewkowicz & Way 2019). The main method to achieve this goal was a widespread Warming in the Arctic has accelerated and intensified literature search, which included the following: scientific articles geomorphological processes that directly affect human safety and books, media reports, popular science books, tourist (IPCC 2014; IPCC 2019). The Arctic Coast Report highlights the guides, planning materials, aerial photographs and census role of the coastal zone as an area where serious environmental databases. The research paper drew on information from over changes have a direct impact on Arctic communities (Forbes 2011; 140 bibliographical items published between 1960-2020, and Strzelecki 2011; Overduin et al. 2014). Contemporary Arctic coastal the following combinations of keywords in particular were used landscapes have been greatly modified by the following factors: in the literature search: arctic environment, arctic settlements, the accelerated degradation of permafrost, the thawing of which arctic coast, geohazards, environment changes, anthropogenic threatens existing infrastructure (Wobus et al. 2011; Walker et al. 2015; impact, human impact, climate change risks, permafrost thaw, Doré, Niu & Brooks 2016; Debortoli et al. 2019; Karjalainen et al. 2019), permafrost degradation, tundra fire, retrogressive thawslumps, 127 MISCELLANEA GEOGRAPHICA – REGIONAL STUDIES ON DEVELOPMENT Vol. 25 • No. 2 • 2021 • pp. 127-143 • ISSN: 2084-6118 • DOI: 10.2478/mgrsd-2020-0036 arctic tsunami, polar vegetation, arctic culture, sea ice extent, [Norway], there was a battle for heavy water (Evans 1999). Iceland glacier retreat, arctic development, arctic history, arctic pollution, was preventatively occupied by the United Kingdom (Miller 2003). landscape degradation. Svalbard hosted German meteorological stations providing key In the paper, the author uses the term ‘Arctic settlement’ forecasts for the Atlantic theatre of naval warfare (Stange 2018). instead of, for example, ‘Arctic Town’ or ‘Arctic City’. This is due The waters of the Arctic ocean, under a U.S. agreement with the to the difficulty of transposing onto the Arctic area the European U.S.S.R. [Lend-Lease] were used by convoys transporting tanks, understanding of a city as a creation with a leading service vehicles, aircraft, weapons and ammunition to the Arctic ports function. When using the term Arctic settlement here, the author of the Soviet Union. Subsequently, the Arctic became an area is refering to a settlement that has been inhabited all year of activity during the so-called Cold War. In Northern Canada, round for at least the last 10 years. In order to show the spatial Distant Early Warning Line (DEW Line) radar stations (Lackenbauer relations and leading functions (Figure 1), a criterion of limiting & Farish 2007), military bases and airports were built, e.g. the US the presented settlement units to a minimum of 100 inhabitants Air Base in Kangerlussuaq, Greenland (Dzik 2014). The USSR was also applied. For the purposes of Figure 1, 81 settlement build the Novaya Zemlya nuclear training ground (Khalturin et al. units with population ranging from 100 to 71,000 inhabitants were 2005). After the end of the Cold War, many of these bases were analysed. The leading function was interpreted on the basis of abandoned, but now the Arctic is, once again, becoming an area available aerial and satellite photographs and local plans. The of increased interest to world powers (Łuszczuk 2015; Bennett 2018). shape, function of the buildings, statistical data and available This is evidenced by recent reports on the activation of Arctic scientific literature were analysed. A detailed table, with a list bases by the Russian Federation, e.g. on Kotelny Island (Siminski of all the analysed localities, can be found in the Appendix. To 2013), the construction of nuclear icebreakers by China (Zhen illustrate the complexity of current interactions between man and 2018) as well as the recent declaration by the US President of his the environment on the Arctic coast, Figure 2 was created, as this wish to purchase Greenland (Pengelly 2019). These contemporary illustrates the general character of the Arctic settlement locations reports show that the Arctic is still the focus of attention and show on the Arctic coast and the processes most frequently described how important it is to deepen the relationship between the human in the literature. presence and the environment in the Arctic. The research area, interpreted as the Arctic coastal zone, was limited to a strip of the Arctic coastline (up to 10 km wide) Needs and determinants of settlement in the Arctic inhabited by humans all year round, which is influenced by Many forms of settlement are present in the Arctic area, peri- and paraglacial processes as well as landscape-shaping ranging from small scientific bases, ephemeral camps associated processes related to the activity of the sea (e.g. sea ice, wave with the mining industry, to cities numbering several hundred impact). thousand inhabitants such as Murmansk or Norilsk. The largest number of settlement units, as classified under the author’s Humans in the Arctic population criterion, are located in Norway (30) and Greenland Human activity in the Arctic over the centuries (23) and the smallest number are in Canada (10) and the USA From the outset, a clear