Time and Religion in Hellenistic Athens: An Interpretation of the Little Metropolis Frieze. Monica Haysom School of History, Classics and Archaeology Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Newcastle University, November 2015. ABSTRACT Two stones that form a part of the spolia on the Little Metropolis church (Aghios Eleutherios) in central Athens consist of a frieze depicting a calendar year. The thesis begins with a Preface that discusses the theoretical approaches used. An Introduction follows which, for reference, presents the 41 images on the frieze using the 1932 interpretation of Ludwig Deubner. After evaluating previous studies in Chapter 1, the thesis then presents an exploration of the cultural aspects of time in ancient Greece (Chapter 2). A new analysis of the frieze, based on ancient astronomy, dates the frieze to the late Hellenistic period (Chapter 3); a broad study of Hellenistic calendars identifies it as Macedonian (Chapter 4), and suggests its original location and sponsor (Chapter 5). The thesis presents an interpretation of the frieze that brings the conclusions of these chapters together, developing an argument that includes the art, religion and philosophy of Athenian society contemporary with the construction of the frieze. Given the date, the Macedonian connection and the link with an educational establishment, the final Chapter 6 presents an interpretation based not on the addition of individual images but on the frieze subject matter as a whole. This chapter shows that understanding the frieze is dependent on a number of aspects of the world of artistic connoisseurship in an elite, educated audience of the late Hellenistic period. Important is an awareness of their intellectual appreciation of the perfection of the cosmos and the links between this comprehension of a rational domain and religion. Coupling their wonder at these two spheres with the custom for enjoying enigmatic pieces of work leads to a conclusion that the frieze attempts to relate religion and astronomy, rather than present a straight-forward calendrical list of events. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to begin by thanking Dr Sally Waite, who introduced me to the world of ancient Greece and whose continued friendship and help has supported me throughout the research. I have had the good fortune to have benefitted from the help of three supervisors, Dr Sally Waite, Professor Tony Spawforth and Dr David Creese, who took up the challenge when Professor Spawforth retired. Without Professor Spawforth’s encouragement I would not have contemplated this project and it has been his continued interest and open minded but searching scrutiny of the work that has guided my investigations. Dr Creese has piloted me through the latter stages of the thesis and his input has been vitally important guiding me through ancient Greek literature and philosophy. I particularly wish to thank all of them for their patience. Several other people have given me important help and among these I would like to thank Dr Maria Mili who gave me such useful insights into Greek religion and suggested new avenues of thought. Members of the School of History, Classics and Archaeology have also given me advice or help with particular problems; the late Professor John Moles who helped with translations of Virgil, Dr Rowland Smith who helped with the interpretation of some ancient Greek, Roberto Ciucciove who translated an important Italian document for me, Sally Waite who provided Figures 2.11 and 6.16, Tony Spawforth who provided Figure 3.23 and Nigel Porter who provided Figure 5.1. In addition, Stewart Tod drew Figure 5.29 (a reconstruction of a prothyron containing the calendar frieze), and Maria Duggan saved me from the perils of PDF formatting. Contents. PAGE CHAPTER SECTION 1 Preface. 2 P.1. Science and Language. 5 P.2. Theory and the Study of Culture. 7 P.3. Time and Culture. 9 P.4. Method of Analysis used in the Thesis. 11 Introduction. 23 Chapter 1: Previous Interpretations of the Little Metropolis Calendar Frieze. 1.1. Athenian Calendars. 26 1.2. Early Roman calendars. 27 1.3. Synchronising Times: Greece and Rome. 28 1.4. Emperor Augustus’ Birthday. 34 1.5. Previous Interpretations of Festival Images on the Little Metropolis Calendar Frieze. 1.5.1. Pyanopsia. 35 1.5.2. Oschophoria. 37 1.5.3. Thesmophoria. 40 1.5.4. Ritual Ploughing and Ritual Sowing. 44 1.5.5. Rural Dionysia. 45 1.5.6. Lenaia. 46 1.5.7. Theogamia. 1.5.8. City Dionysia and Mounichia. 47 1.5.9. Hephaisteia. 1.5.10. Dipolieia. 48 1.5.11. Panathenaia. 49 1.5.12. Heracleia at Kynosarges. 1.5.13. Great Mysteries. 50 1.6. Previous Interpretations of Images on the Little Metropolis Calendar Frieze not classified as Festivals in Section 1.5. 55 1.7. Synopsis of Olga Palagia’s Interpretation of the Little Metropolis Calendar Frieze. 57 1.8. Enigmatic Topics that arise from an Analysis of Previous Studies of the Little Metropolis Calendar Frieze. 59 Chapter 2: Cognitive Aspects of Time in Ancient Greece. 2.1. Modern Time. 2.1.1. The Measurement of Time. 60 2.1.2. Theoretical Physics and Time. 63 2.1.3. Biology and Time. 2.1.4. The Social Construction of Time. 68 2.2. Ancient Time. 69 2.2.1 The Myth of Kronos and Time. i 73 2.2.2. Time in Literature and the Visual Arts. 79 2.2.3. Philosophy and Time. 2.2.3.1. Aristotle. 82 2.2.3.2. Hellenistic Philosophers. 83 2.2.4. Social Identity, History and Time. 88 2.2.5. Time and the Law. 89 2.2.6. Time and Religion. 91 2.2.7. Kairos. 93 2.3. Summary. 97 Chapter 3: Astronomy and Time: The Date of the Little Metropolis Calendar Frieze. 3.1. Introduction. 3.2. Ancient Greek Concepts of Astronomical Reality. 100 3.3. Hellenistic Astronomy. 3.3.1. An Explanation of Movement. 106 3.3.2. Appearances. 108 3.4. The Zodiac and the Date of the Little Metropolis Frieze. 119 3.5. The Zodiac and Astrology. 123 3.6. Astronomy and Hellenistic Culture. 3.6.1. Star Time in Greek Drama and Religion. 129 3.6.2. Star Time and Practical Applications of Knowledge of the Night Sky. 140 3.7. Constellations and Stars: A Possible Theme for the Little Metropolis Calendar Frieze. 146 3.8. Summary. 147 Chapter 4. Greek Calendars: the First Month of the Little Metropolis Calendar Frieze. 4.1. Introduction. 148 4.2. Interpretation of Athenian Calendars. 4.2.1. The Beginning and the End of Each Month. 151 4.2.2. Political Control of the Athenian Calendar. 155 4.3. Attic Sacrificial Calendars: Chronology of Months and Years. 158 4.3.1. Thorikos Calendar. 4.3.2. Erchia Calendar. 160 4.3.3. Marathon Tetrapolis Calendar. 163 4.3.4. Athenian Polis Calendar. 164 4.3.5. Calendar of the genos, Salaminioi. 4.3.6. The Teithras, Eleusis and Skambonidai Calendar. 165 4.3.7. The Significance of the Attic Sacrificial Calendars for the Interpretation of the Little Metropolis Calendar Frieze. 167 4.4. The Date of the New Year in Greek Poleis during the Hellenistic Period. 4.4.1. Variation. 173 4.4.2. Significance of the New Year. 178 4.4.3. Numerical Calendars with an Autumn New Year. ii 186 4.4.4. The Egyptian/ Macedonian and Seleucid/Macedonian Calendars. 190 4.5. The Pyanopsion Start of the Little Metropolis Calendar Frieze. 193 4.6. Image 6: Is Kronos Depicted on the Frieze? 195 Chapter 5. Athens in the Late Hellenistic period: A Search for the Original Location of the Little Metropolis Calendar Frieze. 5.1. Athens and the Macedonians. 207 5.2. Euergetism. 208 5.3. The Topography and Buildings of Athens in the Late Hellenistic Period. 209 5.3.1. Walls and Roads. 212 5.3.2. Water. 214 5.3.3. Hellenistic Mansions or Palaces. 215 5.3.4. The Agora and Surrounding Area. 218 5.3.5. The Acropolis and Surrounding Slopes. 223 5.3.6. The Temple of Olympian Zeus. 224 5.3.7. Gymnasia. 228 5.4. Search for a Candidate Building that Housed the Frieze. 230 5.5. Structure of the Frieze Bearing Stones on the Little Metropolis. 238 5.6. The Architecture of Hellenistic Gymnasia from outside Athens. 243 5.7. Synchrony between Athenian Gymnasia/Palaestrai or Stoa Construction and Historical Events. 246 5.8. Gymnasia and the Ephebeia 247 5.8.1. Ephebeia in 4th Century BC Athens. 249 5.8.2. Post 4th Century BC Changes to the Ephebeia. 251 5.9. Athenian Religion in the Late Hellenistic Period: Participation of the Ephebeia; A Possible Theme for the Little Metropolis Calendar Frieze. 259 5.10. Summary. 261 Chapter 6. Interpretation of the Little Metropolis Frieze. 6.1. Hellenistic Art. 6.1.1. Perception. 269 6.1.2. Parallel Examples for the Little Metropolis Frieze Images. 272 6.1.3. The Deification of Homer by Archelaos. 276 6.1.4. Personification. 278 6.2. Search for Interpretive Themes within the Little Metropolis Frieze: Religion. 6.2.1. Hellenistic Religion. 282 6.2.2. Hellenistic Religion: Continuity and Change. 287 6.3. The Hellenistic Cosmos and Religion. 291 6.4. A Holistic Interpretation of the Little Metropolis Frieze. iii 294 6.5. Return to the Little Metropolis Frieze Images. 304 6.6. How can we know? 307 Ancient References. 313 References. iv TABLES. PAGE 25 Table 1.1. THE ATHENIAN octaeteris CYCLE. 32 Table 1.2. JULIAN DATES FOR THE FIRST DAY OF THE ATHENIAN YEAR. 56 Table 1.3. COMPARISON OF THE INTERPRETATIONS OF THE LITTLE METROPOLIS CALENDAR FRIEZE BY PALAGIA AND DEUBNER.