THE SURVIVAL OF HINDU CREMATION MYTHS AND RITUALS IN 21ST CENTURY PRACTICE: THREE CONTEMPORARY CASE STUDIES by Aditi G. Samarth APPROVED BY SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE: ___________________________________________ Dr. Thomas Riccio, Chair ___________________________________________ Dr. Richard Brettell, Co-Chair ___________________________________________ Dr. Melia Belli-Bose ___________________________________________ Dr. David A. Patterson ___________________________________________ Dr. Mark Rosen Copyright 2018 Aditi G. Samarth All Rights Reserved Dedicated to my parents, Charu and Girish Samarth, my husband, Raj Shimpi, my sons, Rishi Shimpi and Rishabh Shimpi, and my beloved dogs, Chowder, Haiku, Happy, and Maya for their loving support. THE SURVIVAL OF HINDU CREMATION MYTHS AND RITUALS IN 21ST CENTURY PRACTICE: THREE CONTEMPORARY CASE STUDIES by ADITI G. SAMARTH, BFA, MA DISSERTATION Presented to the Faculty of The University of Texas at Dallas in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN HUMANITIES THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT DALLAS May 2018 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank members of Hindu communities across the globe, and specifically in Bali, Mauritius, and Dallas for sharing their knowledge of rituals and community. My deepest gratitude to Wayan at Villa Puri Ayu in Sanur, Bali, to Dr. Uma Bhowon and Professor Rajen Suntoo at the University of Mauritius, to Pandit Oumashanker, Pandita Barran, and Pandit Dhawdall in Mauritius, to Mr. Paresh Patel and Mr. Ashokbhai Patel at BAPS Temple in Irving, to Pandit Janakbhai Shukla and Pandit Harshvardhan Shukla at the DFW Hindu Ekta Mandir, and to Ms. Stephanie Hughes at Hughes Family Tribute Center in Dallas, for representing their varied communities in this scholarly endeavor, for lending voice to the Hindu community members they interface with in their personal, professional, and social spheres, and for enabling my research and documentation during a vulnerable rite of passage. My everlasting gratitude to Dr. Richard “Rick” Brettell and Dr. Thomas Riccio for teaching me the joy of higher learning, and for exemplifying the pursuit of the highest standard of scholarship. My appreciation goes out to Dr. Melia Belli-Bose, Dr. David Patterson, and Dr. Mark Rosen for the scrutinized reading and valuable scholarly support. March 2018 v THE SURVIVAL OF HINDU CREMATION MYTHS AND RITUALS IN 21ST CENTURY PRACTICE: THREE CONTEMPORARY CASE STUDIES Aditi G. Samarth, PhD The University of Texas at Dallas, 2018 ABSTRACT Supervising Professors: Dr. Thomas Riccio, Chair Dr. Richard Brettell, Co-Chair The 4,000-year-old Hindu Agni Sanskar (cremation) myth and ritual prescribed in the ancient scriptures continues to be an indomitable attribute of contemporary Hinduism. This qualitative dissertation focuses on cremations in three different Hindu communities of Bali, Mauritius, and Dallas, and notes recurring themes and patterns to exemplify the continuity and changes in Hindu cremation traditions. Personal factors such as age, gender, socio-economic status, educational qualifications, and family situation determine how a deceased person’s cremation rites are performed. Cremation is also impacted by the socio-economic and political power of the Hindu community within the larger nation or city, as well as the historical context for settlement of the Hindu community in the “New” homelands. Despite global Hindu diaspora and in spite of modern innovations in cremation, the Agni Sanskar ritual remains the backbone of contemporary Hindu tradition. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………………………………...v ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………...…vi LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………..viii LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………….xv INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………...1 CHAPTER 1 RITUALS……………………………………………………………………….13 CHAPTER 2 DEATH………………………………………………………………………….33 CHAPTER 3 CREMATION…………………………………………………………………..63 CHAPTER 4 POST-CREMATION………………………………………………………….116 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION: HINDU CREMATIONS - CONTINUITY, CHANGE, AND COMMUNITY……………………………………………...168 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………………191 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH…………………………………………………………...………200 CURRICULUM VITAE vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: This notice informs the Balinese Hindus to contact the temple staff if they wish to pray or propitiate ancestors with offerings in the Pura Dalem Agung Temple of Death. Unless opened by a staff person for death-related rituals, the temple is always locked. The main reason for remaining locked is to keep leyaks (witches) away from learning their witchcraft in this highly propitious setting. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth……………………………………………...34 Figure 2: Monkeys luntung bangkur at home in the Pura Dalem Agung Temple of Death. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth…………………………………………………………………35 Figure 3: A monkey sits on a leyak (witch) sculpture in the generally deserted Pura Dalem Agung temple. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth…………………………………………...…….36 Figure 4: A baby monkey sits fearlessly on an haute-relief stone sculpture of Barong. Barong is Rangda’s opposite, and as an embodiment of good, is the enemy of the leyak (witches), who practice witchcraft in Balinese folklore and culture. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth………….36 Figure 5: A colorful bade made to carry the disinterred body from the burial ground to the cremation site. The body is placed inside the bade, and it will be burned together at the cremation. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth………………………………………………...…...40 Figure 6: The young men from the banjar rest against the bade that they carried to the setra, cremation ground. This bade is elaborate, and the gold and white colors signify the higher caste of the person placed inside this bade. The umbrellas are a ceremonial symbol of the upper caste. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth…………………………………………………………………41 Figure 7: Gamelan ensemble in a family home prior to the funeral procession. They will become a part of the funeral procession, playing their instruments on the way to the cremation ground, while walking with the mourners. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth……………………………..45 Figure 8: Men carrying the body down the stairs. It will be placed inside the open floral casket. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth…………………………………………………………………51 Figure 9: Woman offering a symbolic bundle of wood for the crematory fire as women do not accompany the corpse to the crematorium in Mauritius. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth……...52 Figure 10: Women stay back as the men carry the corpse to the samsana, crematorium. The pouring of the water symbolizes providing water for the deceased in his afterlife journey. The woman in the red saree is the deceased’s wife. It is important to note that the women are not wearing white, dark, or mute color clothing, as is normally the custom in the Indian Hindu “original” culture. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth……………………………………………..53 viii Figure 11: Hughes Family Tribute Center’s price list for cremation packages for the Asian Indian community. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth……………………………………………………56 Figure 12: The six-persons group cremation began here, in this banjar neighborhood. The bade tower is placed at the front. The entire banjar participated in the funeral procession, which left from here to go to the cremation ground. An interesting aspect of the multi-banjar cremations is that the women of the banjar wore color-specific tops to identify with the banjar that they are representing. While the clothing appeared traditional, a sleeved top and a legs-covering sarong, the fabrics reflected current trends. Most of the women had indulged in the fashion of wearing tops that were made of lace. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth…………………………………...69 Figure 13: This is the Angklung Gamelan, a traditional percussion 4-note bronze orchestra used during cremation ceremonies, that performed throughout the six-persons multi-banjar cremations. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth…………………………………………………….70 Figure 14: This is the multi-banjar sponsored bade tower made to carry six-persons remains. The tower is hand-made by the banjar members and it stays on the road until ready for use. The bade takes up the space of one parked car side-ways and two parked cars in length. Pictures of the deceased persons are pasted on the bade tower. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth………………71 Figure 15: These young men carried the bade for the multi-banjar sponsored cremation; they walked three miles from their banjar to the cremation site, although shorter routes exist. The intent of taking the longer route is to confuse the spirits so that the spirits do not find the way to the home of the living. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth………………………………………...72 Figure 16: Angklung gamelan, which played at the banjar on the morning of the cremation day, accompanies the procession from the banjar to the setra, cremation ground. It is important to wear muted colors for men as it serves as a barrier to themselves. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth…………………………………………………………………………………………..73 Figure 17: Women from two different banjars (neighborhoods) carrying offerings to the cremation site. Every banjar member contributes to the cremation. Offerings include coconut leaves, roses, jasmines, frangipanis, sometimes biscuits, coins, a variety of rice dishes, candies, and a few stalks of incenses. Since this cremation was a multi-banjar event, the women from each banjar wore a color that was specific to their banjar. Photographer: Aditi G. Samarth…...74 Figure 18: Sign at the entrance to the setra, cremation ground. This sign is from Denpasar,