Impact of golf courses on cultural landscapes By Ole R. Sandberg, Helena Nordh and Mari S. Tveit Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU) Popular Scientific Articles - STERF, February 2015 Abstract Golf has become increasingly popular in Scandinavia over the last decades, and the number of golf courses have increased manifold. As golf courses occupy large areas, often in highly populated regions, it is important to understand and predict the landscape impact of establishment of golf courses. In this study we assess the visual impact of eight Scandinavian golf courses on the cultural lands- cape. The impact of golf course establishment was assessed regarding four visual themes; coherence with the surrounding landscape, openness, variation and stewardship on site. Results show that establishment of golf courses do not necessarily change the visual landscape character of the cultural landscape context. Relatively few changes were found when assessing coherence of the golf courses with the surrounding landscape. The impact was more substantial regarding the visual landscape character within the golf courses, although for most of the attributes only small or moderate changes were identified. The most substantial impact was found for steward- ship. The establishment of the golf course made the landscape more managed, accessible, and historic elements more visible. As stewardship has been found to be preferred in landscape preference studies, this seems to be compatible with the aim of multifunctional golf courses. FACTS PROJECT NAME: ”Public access and preservation of cultural landscapes and SOURCES OF FINANCE: cultural heritage elements on golf courses” Scandinavian turf grass and environmental research This article presents the landscape- and cultural heritage foundation (STERF). part of the study. The aspect of public access on golf courses Dept. of landscape architecture and spatial planning, is to be presented in a later article. Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU). PROJECT PERIOD: CONTACT PERSONS: 2010-2013 Ole R. Sandberg, professor emeritus, [email protected] PLACES OF STUDY: Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Iceland Helena Nordh, associate professor, [email protected] AIM OF THE PROJECT: To study the impact golf courses have on cultural landscapes Mari S. Tveit, professor, and historic elements. [email protected] A SHORT VERSION OF THE RESULTS: Department of Landscape Architecture and Spatial The construction of golf courses has made only small chan- Planning, Norwegian University of Life Sciences ges to the visual character of the cultural landscapes. Only Box 5003, N-1432 Aas small or moderate landscape changes were identified within the golf courses. A high degree of stewardship on the golf courses made the greatest visual impact. Cover photo: Tungdalsvöllur golf course, Iceland (Isafjordur), year of origin 1985, 9 holes, 12 ha. 2 Oppegård golf course, Norway (Oslo), year of origin 1986, 18 holes, 70ha. Introduction Over the last 20 years the number ration, 2002). Many golf courses paying careful attention to people’s of golf courses in Norway, Sweden, have been established in near urban perception of landscapes (Council Denmark and Iceland has increased areas, as well as in other attractive of Europe, 2003). Current urba- dramatically by 57% , from 553 in areas in rural settings. These are nisation processes have led to a 1995 to 868 in 2014 (Norwegian areas of importance to people’s growth in the proportion of the Golf Federation, 2015). Golf has everyday life, both as visual back- population living in urban areas become a popular sport with large drops and as potential recreational causing pressure on near-urban parts of the population. The Nor- areas. It is therefore of interest both land-use (Antrop, 2004). The high wegian Golf Federation (NGF) is to local planning authorities, local pressure on peri-urban landscapes currently the third largest sports residents and to the Scandinavian creates challenges for planners federation in Norway with 122 Golf Federations to understand and and policy-makers responsible for 000 members and over 185 golf predict the landscape impact of managing landscapes to the benefit clubs (Norwegian Golf Federation, establishment of golf courses. of different stakeholders, interests 2013). and values. The European Landscape Conven- Golf courses occupy large areas. tion highlights everyday landscapes As golf courses are both large and A standard 18 hole golf course and their importance for people. located in areas frequently obser- covers approximately 50 to 100 According to the Convention such ved and visited by people, there hectares (Norwegian Golf Fede- landscapes should be managed, is a need to assess and predict the 3 Vestfold golf course, Norway (Tønsberg), year of origin 1956, 18 holes, 80 ha. visual impact of different types key aspects of visual landscapes the larger landscape context, as of golf courses. The demand for important to people’s landscape well as the visual landscape charac- tools to assess golf courses comes perception and preferences. These ter within the area covered by the both from the planning and policy are stewardship, naturalness, course. However, as only around perspective as well as from within coherence, disturbance, openness, 40% of the golf course is used for the golf community. Assessments complexity, historicity, imageabi- the game, there are great possibili- of golf courses should both encom- lity and ephemera, which together ties for taking other landscape inte- pass the golfers’ preferences and describe the visual landscape rests into account in the remaining designs suitable for the game, as character. Each of these key as- 60% of the golf course. well as public preferences and the pects are presented with landscape visual impact for people not invol- attributes and can be measured to There are examples of nature ved in playing golf. monitor or assess changes in the reserves established in these areas, visual landscape expression. as well as pasture for farm animals, Visual landscapes and people’s cultural heritage sites, recreational perception have been extensively When new golf courses are built, areas, marshes, forest, heaths and studied, and research has identified they will in most cases create a other nature types important for a range of different visual aspects visual impact changing the cultural biodiversity. With conscious ma- important to people’s landscape landscape in context and content. nagement aiming at encompassing experience. Tveit et al. (2006) and Establishment of a golf course can several landscape interests and va- Ode et al. (2008) identified nine alter both the visual character of lues, golf courses can be valuable 4 Delsjö golf course, Sweden (Gothenburg), year of origin 1962, 18 holes, 80 ha. also beyond the game. Research explicit goals for multifunctional (2006) and Ode et al (2008) as a has been conducted to improve golf golf courses (Scandinavian Turf- starting point we address the visual course management for biodiversi- grass and Environment Research impact of golf course establishment ty and in terms of use of fertilisers Foundation, 2011). According to and discuss how such impact can and pesticides, aiming at minimi- STERF, multifunctional golf cour- change with different management sing environmental impact (Term- ses can play an important part in regimes and careful consideration an, 1997; Green & Marshall, 1987; reaching the environmental targets by greenkeepers. Tanner & Gange, 2005; Kohler et in Scandinavian countries, as well al., 2004; Scandinavian Turfgrass as improving people’s health and and Environment Research Foun- quality of life in near urban areas dation, 2013). However, the visual where many golf courses are loca- impact of golf courses has not yet ted (Scandinavian Turfgrass and been addressed in research. Under- Environment Research Foundation, standing how people perceive and 2013). appreciate visual landscape change related to golf courses can make As a contribution towards multi- these large areas more attractive functional golf courses this study also for non-golfers. The Scandi- aim to assess the visual impact of navian Turfgrass and Environment golf course establishments. Using Research Foundation (STERF) has the framework from Tveit et al 5 Method Choice of golf courses Eight golf courses in four Scandi- navian countries (Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Iceland) were cho- sen, two from each country. Four were located in proximity to a city or the countries capitals, the other four were located in the country- side, see figures 1-2. All golf courses were surrounded by natural or agricultural land and five of them also by housing esta- tes. Seven golf courses were 18- hole courses and one was a 9-hole course. The courses are representa- tive for Scandinavian golf courses when it comes to size, landscape setting and golf course design. Alt- hough they are all at a similar alti- tude and near the coast, we expect that golf courses on higher grounds inland will give similar results if investigated. Further studies should though be conducted. For photos and facts about the golf courses see photos in this article: Cover: Tungdalsvöllur GC, Iceland Page 3: Oppegård GC, Norway Page 4: Vestfold GC, Norway Page 5: Delsjö GC, Sweden Page 8: Ullared-Fjädje GC, Sweden Page 9: Smørum GC, Denmark Page 12: Korpa GC, Iceland Page 14: Ledreborg GC, Denmark Figures. 1 and 2. Maps showing the location of the golf courses. 6 Landscape Themes Attributes Evaluations/Measures 0 4 Topography