The Role of Native Plant and Seed Collectors and Growers in Protecting Floral Diversity by David N. Morris A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfillment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2010 © David N. Morris 2010 Author’s Declaration I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. ii Abstract The planting of native species is a common strategy for the conservation of biodiversity; it not only allows for the restoration of degraded habitat both within conservation reserves and the matrix lands between reserves, it supplements the populations of the floral species which are planted. These supplemental populations may play an important role in providing demographic security for rare species. However, the conservation of rare species depends on more than simply maintaining adequate numbers of the species: the diversity within the species must also be conserved. Although maintaining genetic diversity is increasingly a concern for formal species recovery efforts, there has been very little research done about the diversity within plantings by non-state actors. This research was undertaken to address this knowledge gap by studying the provenances of planted rare species and the activities of those who collect and grow these plants. This research was undertaken in the Carolinian zone of southern Ontario, a region with a large number of rare plant species and a large human population. Part of this study utilized semi-structured interviews with commercial seed collectors, commercial native plant growers, and non-commercial, hobbyist growers. A variety of factors limited the diversity with the seeds collected by commercial collectors. Due to difficulty in accessing information about the natural occurrences of rare species, collectors typically collected from the same, limited number of source plants. Trespassing on private property or protected lands was common to access these seed sources, although their preference for easily accessible, reliably fecund source plants on flat, mowed sites also meant that horticultural specimens were also desired. iii Many of these biases were passed on to commercial growers when the seed was sold by the commercial collectors. Commercial growers shared many collection practices with commercial collectors, creating similar restrictions on the diversity within their collections. However, further limitations in diversity were also created by the growers’ establishment of small populations of seed plants and by the trading of seeds and plants between growers. One boutique grower was a dominant source of seeds and plants in these trades. The limitations in the diversity within these rare species were passed onto those who purchased and planted them. This study also focused on enthusiastic native plant hobbyists and found that they not only purchased plants but collected and grew their own plants. They also traded with other hobbyists. Much of the information about where to collect seed or plants, as well as much of the seed or plants traded between hobbyists, originated with a key individual. Thus, this champion hobbyist plays a significant role in the character of planted examples of rare plant species and the genetics of the champion’s plants are heavily represented with other planted occurrences. The practices of commercial seed collectors, growers and native plant hobbyists create biases which limit the diversity within plantings of rare species. Although these plantings provide demographic security for these species, they do not represent the diversity within their remnant “wild” populations. Thus, important questions must be raised about the conservation value of these plantings. Since many of the practices of seed collectors and growers are also used when growing more common species, the diversity within plantings of these species should also be suspect. Although the lack of diversity within common species may not threaten the regional survival of the species in the short term, it may impact the ultimate success of restoration projects. iv Acknowledgements This research would not have been possible without the help of many people. I am particularly grateful to those participants who generously shared their time, their interests, their experiences, and their passions for native plants with me. I also wish to thank my supervisor, Dr. Stephen Murphy. Although a giant within his field, he was always approachable and sincerely interested in my work. While he provided invaluable guidance, he also gave me the freedom and independence to learn for myself what was truly important. The members of my committee have also provided untiring support for my dissertation. Therefore, I would like to thank Dr. Brent Doberstein, Dr. George Francis, Dr. Rob Milne, Dr. Scott Slocombe, and, my external examiner, Dr. Jennifer Foster. I am also grateful to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council and the University of Waterloo for their financial support of my studies and this research. Finally, I dedicate this dissertation to my wife, Monica. Her patience, understanding and unwavering faith in my abilities were foundational to this research and all that I do. v Table of Contents List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... viii List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ ix Chapter 1 - Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Case Study Background: The Carolinian Zone ............................................................. 3 1.2 Reconciling Conservation with Human Activities ........................................................ 7 1.3 Research Goals and Questions ...................................................................................... 9 1.4 Motivations for Study .................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 2 - Theoretical Justification for Study ...................................................................... 12 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 12 2.2 Defining Biodiversity Conservation .............................................................................. 13 2.3 Reasons for Conserving Biodiversity ............................................................................ 17 2.4 What Biodiversity should be Conserved ....................................................................... 23 2.5 Where to Conserve Biodiversity ................................................................................... 29 2.6 Conservation of Biodiversity within Human-dominated Landscapes ........................... 35 2.7 Modifying the Matrix: Choosing the Appropriate Species and Provenances ............... 46 Chapter 3 – Methodology ........................................................................................................... 50 3.1 Seed Collector Certification Course .............................................................................. 51 3.2 Semi-structured Interviews ............................................................................................ 51 3.2.1 Commercial Seed Collectors ............................................................................. 52 3.2.2 Commercial Growers ........................................................................................ 53 3.3 Provenance Survey ........................................................................................................ 54 3.4 Provence Study of Planted Examples of Magnolia acuminata ..................................... 55 3.5 Secrecy and Privacy Concerns ...................................................................................... 56 Chapter 4 - Rare Plant Species and the Law............................................................................ 58 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 58 4.2 Endangered Species Legislation and the Collection and Planting Rare Plant Species . 59 4.3 Collecting and Growing Listed Species by Conservation Professionals ....................... 63 Chapter 5 – Accessing Seed Sources: Comparing the Practices of Commercial Seed Collectors, Commercial Growers, and Non-commercial Collectors .................... 66 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 66 5.2 Tree Seed Collecting in Ontario .................................................................................... 67 5.2.1 Ontario Certified Seed Collector Program ........................................................ 70 5.2.2 Potential Implications of Tree Seed Collecting Guidelines .............................. 72 5.3 Commercial Seed Collectors ......................................................................................... 78 5.4 Commercial Growers and Nursery Owners .................................................................. 83 5.5 Non-commercial