CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY NUR KHAIRIEL ANUAR THE IMPACT OF AIRPORT ROAD WAYFINDING DESIGN ON SENIOR DRIVER BEHAVIOUR CENTRE FOR AIR TRANSPORT MANAGEMENT SCHOOL OF AEROSPACE, TRANSPORT AND MANUFACTURING PhD in Transport Systems PhD Academic Year: 2015 - 2016 Supervisors: Dr Romano Pagliari / Mr Richard Moxon August 2016 CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY CENTRE FOR AIR TRANSPORT MANAGEMENT SCHOOL OF AEROSPACE, TRANSPORT AND MANUFACTURING PhD in Transport Systems PhD Academic Year 2015 - 2016 NUR KHAIRIEL ANUAR The Impact of Airport Road Wayfinding Design on Senior Driver Behaviour Supervisors: Dr Romano Pagliari / Mr Richard Moxon August 2016 This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD in Transport Systems © Cranfield University 2016. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without the written permission of the copyright owner. ABSTRACT Airport road access wayfinding refers to a process in which a driver makes a decision to navigate using information support systems in order to arrive to airport successfully. The purpose of this research is to evaluate senior drivers’ behaviour of alternative airport road access designs. In order to evaluate the impact of wayfinding, the combination of simulated driving and completion of a questionnaire were performed. Quantitative data was acquired to give significant results justifying the research outcomes and allow non-biased interpretation of the research results. It represents the process within the development of the methodology and the concept of airport road access design and driving behaviour. Wayfinding complexity varied due to differing levels of road-side furniture. The simulated driving parameters measured were driving mistakes and performances of senior drivers. Three types of driving scenarios were designed consisting of 3.8 miles of airport road access. 40 senior drivers volunteered to undertake these tasks. The questionnaire was used as a supporting study to increase the reliability and validity of the research. Respondents who volunteered for the simulated driving test were encouraged to participate in the questionnaire sessions. The questionnaire was answered after each simulation test was completed. The Mean, Standard Deviation (SD) and Two-Way ANOVA test were used to analyse the results and discussed with reference to the use of the driving simulation. The results confirmed that age group has no significant effect of airport road access complexity design on driving behaviour. Although many studies have been conducted on wayfinding in general, a detailed evaluation on airport road access wayfinding network and driving behaviour in respect of senior drivers were still unexplored domains. Keywords: Wayfinding; Airport; Senior driver; Driving behaviour; Simulation i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A special thanks to: my PhD supervisors, Dr Romano Pagliari and Mr Richard Moxon for their guidance, constructive comments and example they have set during my PhD process have immeasurably benefited me. It has been a pleasure working with them both. Thanks also to all staff and students at the Centre for Air Transport Management, Cranfield University, who helped me along the way of my PhD research. In developing the research approach and methodology, I would like to thank the following individuals: Dr Lisa Dorn and Professor Dr Tom Brijs for their advice and support on driving simulation development; the professionalism of Ms Michelle Thurgood, Transport Specialist of Birmingham Airport; and the participants of driving simulation test in UK. Over the past three years I have been indebted in several different ways for financial and administrative support to colleagues in Malaysia: many thanks to the sponsors, Minister of Higher Education of Malaysia, the employer, Universiti Utara Malaysia; the Vice Chancellor of Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM), Professor Dato’ Seri Dr Mohamed Mustafa Ishak; the Department of Logistics and Transport, School of Technology and Logistics Management (STLM); and the Registrar’s Department, UUM. My deepest thanks go to my parents, Mr Anuar and Mrs Shamsiah; my lovely wife, Dr Rohafiz Sabar; my sisters and brothers, Nurzaliena, Nur Saedy, Nur Sazirah, Nur Muhammad Hussaini and Nur Ahmad Sazuan; and all my in-laws. Their support and kindness are appreciated more than I could ever hope to explain here. I would like to thank everyone who has contributed to the successful completion of my PhD research. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ...........................................................................................................................i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................... ii LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... vii LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................... xi 1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Senior Drivers and Airport Road Access .................................................................. 4 1.2 Problem Statements ............................................................................................... 6 1.3 Senior Drivers and Road Accident Statistics ........................................................... 9 1.4 Research Scope ..................................................................................................... 14 1.5 Research Aims, Research Objectives and Research Questions ............................. 15 1.6 Thesis Structure .................................................................................................... 17 2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF AIRPORT ROAD ACCESS WAYFINDING SYSTEMS ................... 20 2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 20 2.2 Road Access Wayfinding ....................................................................................... 20 2.3 Historical Review of Traffic Signs in United Kingdom ........................................... 24 2.4 Types of Traffic Sign .............................................................................................. 27 2.4.1 Regulatory Signs .......................................................................................... 28 2.4.2 Warning Signs .............................................................................................. 29 2.4.3 Directional Informatory Signs ...................................................................... 30 2.5 Airport Road Access Wayfinding Design............................................................... 30 2.6 Advertising and Airport Road Access Wayfinding ................................................ 34 2.7 Road Furniture Associated with Airport Road Access Wayfinding ....................... 37 2.7.1 Landmark and Airport Identity .................................................................... 38 2.7.2 Create Well-structured Roadways ............................................................... 39 2.7.3 Surface Access Sight Lines............................................................................ 39 2.7.4 Decision Points ............................................................................................. 40 2.7.5 Maps ............................................................................................................ 41 2.8 Senior Drivers and Airport Road Access Wayfinding ............................................ 42 2.9 Chapter Conclusion ............................................................................................... 43 3 AIRPORT ROAD ACCESS WAYFINDING DESIGN AND DRIVING BEHAVIOUR ................ 46 3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 46 3.2 Business and Leisure Travellers and Accident Rates at Airports .......................... 47 3.3 Driver Characteristics and Limitations .................................................................. 53 3.3.1 Attention and Wayfinding Information Processing ..................................... 54 3.3.2 Vision............................................................................................................ 55 iii 3.4 Impact of Navigation and Wayfinding Systems on Behavioural Adaption .......... 57 3.5 Impacts of Airport Road Access Design on Senior Drivers .................................... 61 3.5.1 Intersections and Access Points ................................................................... 61 3.5.2 Interchanges ................................................................................................ 64 3.6 Factors Influencing Safe Driving Behaviour .......................................................... 67 3.7 Research Methodology: The Driving Simulation .................................................. 68 3.8 Research Instruments ........................................................................................... 72 3.8.1 Driving Simulation: STISIM Drive’s Scenario Definition Language (SDL) Development ......................................................................................................... 72 3.8.2 Pilot Study Validation .................................................................................