The force of fear: Police stereotype threat, self-legitimacy, and support for the use force Rick Trinknera,1, Phillip Atiba Goffb a,School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Arizona State University, 411 N. Central Ave, Suite 600, Phoenix, AZ 85004; and b,Center for Policing Equity, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, 524 West 59th Street, Room 6.63.14, New York, NY 10019 1To whom correspondences should be addressed. Email: [email protected]. Abstract increased endorsement of unreasonable use of force—in turn possibly further eroding Researchers have linked concern about public trust. These findings serve as the first appearing racist among police officers—a integration of two psychological literatures: kind of stereotype threat—to racial stereotype threat and procedural justice. disparities in the use of force. This study They also highlight an under-explored presents the first empirical test of the mechanism of urgent scientific and policy psychological mechanism linking stereotype concern. threat to support for police violence among officers. Drawing from psychology and Introduction criminology, we argue that threat undermines officers’ self-legitimacy, which Popular explanations of excessive police use encourages overreliance on force and of force—especially racial disparities in that coercion to maintain situational control. To force—often reduce to issues of officer test this argument, surveys were distributed characteristics (e.g., general aggression, to officers from the patrol division of a large racial bias). Despite the widespread urban police force. Respondents completed popularity of this lay theory, it is at odds measures assessing their experience of with the scientific consensus that attitudes stereotype threat, self-legitimacy, resistance towards the department’s use of force are relatively weak predictors of behavior, policy, approval of using excessive force, only explaining about 10% across contexts and endorsement of procedurally fair (Dovidio, 2001; LaPiere, 1934; Wicker, policing. Structural equation models showed 1969). If attitudes are not the primary that stereotype threat was associated with drivers of bad police behavior, what is? lower self-legitimacy, which in turn was Consistent with other psychological science associated with more resistance to the (Steele, Spencer, & Aronson, 2002), we department’s force policy, more approval of examine how situational vulnerabilities—in excessive force, and less endorsement of fair this case, stereotype threat: officer concerns policing, net of demographic controls. These with appearing racist—play an ironic and results suggest that concerns over appearing underexplored role in producing support for racist may actually produce increased excessive use of force among police force—in turn possibly further eroding officers. public trust and concerns with racial bias. Significance Why would concerns with appearing racist produce greater officer violence? Drawing from psychology and criminology, Richardson and Goff (2014) argue that we argue that concerns with appearing because officers rely on their moral prejudiced undermine police officers’ self- authority to exert control, authority- legitimacy, which encourages overreliance threatening situations elevate the belief that on force and coercion to maintain situational force is needed to maintain control. Put control. To test this argument, surveys were another way, concerns with appearing racist distributed to officers from the patrol (officer stereotype threat) undermine division of a large urban police force. These officers’ sense of self-legitimacy, the belief results suggest that concerns over that their power is earned and respected, in appearing racist may actually produce turn increasing reliance on physically coercive tactics in order to maintain control. The goal of this paper is to provide the first Stereotype threat refers to concerns with empirical test of this argument using data confirming a negative stereotype relevant to from active duty police officers. Because the a valued group of which one is a member stereotype threat literature originated as a (Steele, Spencer, Aronson, 2002). Such way to explain educational disparities and threats can arise whenever a person is in a situation where they believe they will be the legitimacy literature began concerned judged in terms of the negative stereotype. with legal compliance, the two literatures Threats represent challenges to one’s social have never before intersected. This paper identity and self-worth (Trinkner & Goff, represents the first attempt to integrate them. 2016). At the same time, they also represent challenges to one’s social group, as Specifically, we examine how officer confirming a negative stereotype affects the stereotype threat about appearing racist way people view the group and its members predicts their endorsement of excessive (Steele et al., 2002). As a result, people are force. We further test the role of self- especially motivated to reduce the legitimacy as the underlying mechanism to dissonance and apprehension associated that relationship. Consistent with our with the threat, often by aggressing against theoretical integration, we show that the or avoiding the source altogether experience of stereotype threat undermines (Branscombe et al., 1999; Goff et al., 2008). Ironically, experiencing stereotype threat officers’ sense of legitimate authority, which can increase the likelihood of engaging in in turn predicts resistance to policies stereotype-confirming behavior (Steele et dictating appropriate uses of force, support al., 2002). for using unnecessary violence, and rejection of tactics espousing respectful and The handful of studies examining the fair treatment. potential effects of stereotype threat on officers’ behavior have come to come to Stereotype Threat in the Police Context similar conclusions as the general stereotype threat literature: officers concerned about The “racist police officer” stereotype is one appearing racist are also more likely to of the most enduring stereotypes of law engage in behavior that confirms the enforcement in America (Tyler & Huo, stereotype (Trinkner & Goff, 2016). For 2002). Over the last few years this social example, in a study of officers from a large representation has become even more salient urban police department Goff and amidst continuing racial disparities colleagues (2012) found a positive throughout the criminal justice system (Goff association between stereotype threat and et al., 2016; Travis, Western, & Redburn, greater use of force against Blacks. In a 2014) and a seemingly unending string of second study of an even larger department, highly publicized controversial incidents stereotype threat was unassociated with involving police officers and non-Whites, disparities in the frequency of use of force, particularly young Black men. Despite this but was positively associated with more salience, relatively little is known about the severe force against Blacks, but not against effects that awareness of this stereotype has Latinos or Whites (Goff & Martin, 2012). on officers and the way they approach These findings emerged even while citizens. controlling for the explicit and implicit 1 racial biases of the officers. Taken together, theorizing in criminology examining they indicate that racial disparities in police officers’ perceptions of the legitimacy of behavior, to some extent, can emerge their own authority. Bottoms and Tankebe without racial prejudice on the part of (2012, 2013) have argued that legitimacy officers. On its face, this pattern is counter- arises from negotiated engagement between intuitive. However, the psychological power holders and non-power holders. literature is replete with examples of Essentially, power holders make claims on stereotype threat inducing stereotype- the ability to use the power in their station to confirming behavior (Steele et al., 2002). regulate society and non-power holders either recognize or reject those claims. Legal To explain these findings, Richardson and authorities obtain a normatively justified Goff (2014) argued that the experience of monopoly on the power to regulate citizens stereotype threat undermines officers’ to the extent that non-power holders accept confidence in their moral authority to the claims. From this perspective, police control situations in non-coercive ways. legitimacy is separated into two constructs. Officers have two broad forms of authority First, there are citizens’ views of whether to rely on in order to maintain control of the police are legitimate authorities— situations (see also Alpert and Dunham, audience legitimacy. Equally important, 2004). The first is the moral authority though widely understudied in comparison, imbued in the role of law enforcement. The are officers’ views of their position in second is the physical authority they are society and confidence in using the power allowed to use in response to physical inherent in that role—self-legitimacy. threats. Typically, officers are trained to use their moral authority whenever possible to Despite the paucity of research, scholars resolve conflict. However, when officers have argued that officers’ perception of self- believe that citizens view them as racist or legitimacy influences the way they prejudiced, they may be more likely to approach, interpret, and react to citizens believe that citizens will not respect them or (Bottoms & Tankebe, 2012, 2013; Tankebe, their moral authority (Goff et al., 2013; in press).