Those almond-eyed children of the Far East. An exploration of japonist thought and Japanophilia in fin-de-siècle Nordic painters. Word count: 28948 Charlotte Van Hulle Student number: 01504426 Supervisor(s): Prof. Dr. Mick Deneckere A dissertation submitted to Ghent University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Oriental Languages and Cultures–Japanese Language and Culture. Academic year: 2019–2020 PREAMBLE CONCERNING COVID-19 Due to the outbreak of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic of 2020, it should be kept in mind that the research conducted for the purpose of this thesis could not take place as originally intended. The outbreak of the pandemic had direct consequences for the process of completing this master’s thesis—at the time when I began my research, I resided in Finland as a student at the University of Helsinki. A significant part of this thesis relied on the access to source material, as well as access to translation by native speakers of Finnish and Swedish, that this location provided. However, due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 virus, I was unable to stay in Finland, and saw myself forced to leave the country. Before the borders closed, I flew out to Sweden, to be with my partner and family-in-law during this crisis. I was, overall, among those fortunate enough to be able to move ahead with their research throughout the pandemic. That is, no field work was conducted for the purpose of this thesis’ argument, meaning that closed borders and national lockdowns had no bearing on my research as such. Further, the Swedish response to the pandemic allowed me to continue my research with only minor inconveniences, as public libraries remained open. I was thus able to retain access to a majority of the sources I intended to use for the purpose of this thesis, even though I also needed to substitute a number of sources with articles and books that could either be obtained digitally, or through a public library. As a result of the circumstances, it is thus possible that the reader discovers that there are sources which could have provided valuable additions to the arguments made in this thesis, but were not used due to a lack of availability. I ask that this is kept in mind throughout the reading process, and thank the reader for their understanding. ii ABSTRACT After the forced reopening of Japanese ports for international trade in 1854, an infatuation with all things Japanese took the European art world by storm. This infatuation, which by the late nineteenth century had developed into a veritable art movement, was at its height dubbed japonisme. Recent research, particularly conducted in the framework of the 2016 exhibition Japanomania in the Nordic Countries 1875-1918, has shed light on the existence of a japonisme movement in the Nordic countries—a region until then largely unexplored in this context. This dissertation, by using case studies from the Nordic japonisme movement, aims to offer new insights on the nature of japonisme as not merely an artistic movement, but as a thought process. In other words, this thesis asks the question: what do the writings of different Nordic japonists of the late nineteenth century tell us about the nature of japonisme as a socio-cultural phenomenon? To achieve an answer to this question, a case study was conducted where primary source material written by Nordic japonists was carefully searched for mentions of Japan, in order to discover patterns which could be attributed to underlying socio-cultural aspects of the movement as a whole—these sources were then analysed within the theoretical framework of Orientalism studies. The results of this analysis provide new insights into the nature of japonisme as an Orientalist phenomenon, showing that the emergence of the japonisme movement was much more complex than mere artistic interest. These insights hope to serve further research on the topic of japonisme with an interdisciplinary approach, as an approach from the perspective of social- and cultural studies has in this thesis shown to add to our understanding of not only the movement itself, but the circumstances in which the movement arose, as well as the thought process and dominant mindset which accompanied it. Keywords: japonisme, Nordic japonisme, Orientalism iii ABSTRACT (NEDERLANDS) Nadat, in 1854, Japanse grenzen onder druk van de Amerikaanse vloot werden opengesteld voor internationale handel, ontstond in de Europese kunstwereld een obsessie met de Japanse importgoederen die massaal het continent binnenstroomden. Deze obsessie, die in de late negentiende eeuw was uitgegroeid tot een waarachtige kunststroming, werd het japonisme genoemd. Recent onderzoek, hoofdzakelijk het onderzoek gevoerd in het kader van de tentoonstelling Japanomania in the Nordic Countries 1875-1918, heeft nieuwe inzichten geboden over het bestaan van het japonisme in de noordse landen, een regio voordien vaak over het hoofd gezien in studies over het japonisme. Deze thesis tracht, door middel van casussen uit het Noord- Europese japonisme, nieuwe inzichten te bieden over het japonisme niet enkel als kunststroming, maar als gedachtegoed. In andere woorden stelt deze thesis de vraag: wat kunnen de brieven van verschillende Noord-Europese japonisten uit de late negentiende eeuw ons vertellen over het japonisme als een socio-cultureel fenomeen? Om een antwoord te voorzien op deze vraag werd een casusonderzoek gevoerd waarin primair bronnenmateriaal achtergelaten door Noord- Europese japonisten zorgvuldig werden doorzocht voor vermeldingen van Japan—dit om eventuele patronen te ontdekken die in het japonisme een onderliggend socio-cultureel aspect onthullen. De bronnen werden vervolgens geanalyseerd binnen het theoretisch raamwerk van het Oriëntalisme. De resultaten van deze analyse bieden nieuwe inzichten over de aard van het japonisme als een manifestatie van Oriëntalisme, en tonen aan dat het ontstaan van het japonisme een stuk complexer was dan enkel een artistieke interesse. Deze inzichten hopen tot verder onderzoek te leiden over het japonisme, vooral deze die de kwestie benadert vanuit een interdisciplinaire ooghoek—deze thesis heeft immers aangetoond dat een benadering vanuit de sociale- en cultuurwetenschappen kan bijdragen tot een beter begrip van niet alleen de kunststroming zelf, maar eveneens de omstandigheden waarin de kunststroming ontstond, evenals het denkproces en gedachtegoed waarmee het hand in hand ging. Trefwoorden: japonisme, Noord-Europees japonisme, Oriëntalisme iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Serving as the culmination to five years at the University of Ghent, writing a master’s thesis is a daunting task, to be sure—and therefore I would like to take the opportunity to thank everyone who has accompanied me on this endeavour. I would like to express my gratitude first and foremost to my thesis supervisor, professor Mick Deneckere, for not only providing me with the necessary guidance in the research process of this thesis, but having assisted me on numerous occasions throughout my studies at the University of Ghent. I would also like to express my thanks to the University of Ghent, as well as the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union, for providing me with the opportunity to complete the final year of my master’s degree at the University of Helsinki in Finland, an opportunity that has provided me with a plethora of valuable experiences, as well as connections that have proven to be an invaluable addition to the research presented in this thesis. To my fiancé Henning, for not only providing me with support and encouragement throughout my studies, but for his tireless patience in helping me understand and translate academic articles written in Swedish—there is no doubt that without his help, a myriad of valuable sources would have been lost to me. To my mother, for the sacrifices she made working tirelessly to provide me with the opportunity to be the first person in our family to attend university, and for always being there to teach me how to navigate my first steps into the world of adulthood–I may not have gotten the hang of it just yet, but I promise I’ll get there one day. And, finally, thank you to the friends I made in Ghent, for five years of companionship and encouragement, many drinks and many laughs, and equally many hours of lamenting our deadlines. Likewise, to all the friends I met while studying abroad, for broadening and enriching my view of the world, and for helping me to time and time again build a home away from home. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction .................................................................................................................................. vii I. Research methodology .......................................................................................................... 1 II. Historical overview of early modern Japan ............................................................................. 3 i. Rise of the Tokugawa shogunate ....................................................................................... 3 a. Administrative developments under Tokugawa governance ........................................... 3 b. Societal developments .................................................................................................... 5 c. Cultural developments in Tokugawa Japan .................................................................... 8 ii. International relations under the Tokugawa shogunate .................................................... 12 a. Sakoku—Edo