Selling Sex, Negotiating Identity(ies): Gendered Dimensions of The Whore Stigma and Strategies of Stigma-Resistance Jane Elizabeth Nolan BSc (Hons) Criminology and Criminal Justice A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in August 2015 School of Political Science and International Studies Abstract The importance of stigma in the lives of sex workers has been increasingly recognised by academic research over the last two decades. However, the existing literature has not satisfactorily addressed a number of vital questions about gender and the whore stigma. There has been almost no research which has explored the gendered nature of the stigma associated with sex work, and very little research which has recognised and compared the experiences of differently gendered sex workers. Almost all of the published research in this area, has focused upon the experiences of cisgender female sex workers, and/or has not compared these with the experiences of male and transgender sex workers. Thus, existing research has failed to examine the whore stigma as a gendered experience. This thesis explores and interrogates the gendered dimensions of the ‘whore stigma’, and whether transgender and cisgender male and female sex workers experience and negotiate this stigma differently. Key to the research is the extent to which differently gendered sex workers internalise and/or develop strategies to manage and resist stigma, and whether this is mediated by the experience of stigma(s) other than and/or in addition to the ‘whore stigma’ including, for example, stigma relating to racism, homophobia and transphobia. In-depth face-to-face interviews were conducted with 30 sex workers in Queensland and New South Wales, Australia. These participants had experience of working across different sex work sectors, including street work, bar work, working in licenced and unlicenced brothels, for escort agencies, and as independent workers. Observations of their day-to-day working lives were also made, where possible, to help further sketch out their lived realities. This research found that the ‘whore stigma’ was indeed gendered, and that trans and cis women and men experienced and negotiated the stigma of sex work in quantitatively and qualitatively different ways. Female sex workers (particularly cis-women) were far more likely to have been treated in negative and discriminatory ways that stigmatised them. Not only did they document quantitatively more instances of stigma, they were also more likely to face stigma in a wider range of contexts and experience the most serious forms of stigma. Whilst trans-women and gay men were less likely than cis-women to experience stigma, their experiences were closer to those of cis-women than to heterosexual men, who experienced far less stigma than any of the other workers. Given that the experience ii of stigma was found to be deeply gendered for the sex workers in this study, it was not surprising that the extent to which differently gendered workers engaged in various stigma- management strategies reflected these particular experiences. Whilst the women in this study (both cis and trans) were likely to utilise a range of techniques across the gamut of safety-management, emotion-management and information-management strategies, the men (particularly those identifying as heterosexual) were far less likely to employ strategies to manage the stigma of sex work. iii Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis. iv Publications during candidature No publications. Publications included in this thesis No publications included. Contributions by others to the thesis No contributions by others. Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree None. v Acknowledgements It is hard to express the depth of my gratitude to all of those people who have been ‘with’ me in this process. However, first and foremost I must address and thank all of those individuals who participated in this research. The time and energy that they brought to bear on this research was invaluable, and I cannot stress enough how much I have appreciated their continued involvement and support and, in many cases, ongoing friendships: A huge thank you. In addition, this research would have not have been possible without the continued guidance and support of Respect.Inc, to whom I owe a huge debt of gratitude. To my supervisor, Dr. Barbara Sullivan, who was unwavering in her intellectual and emotional support and guidance, despite me testing her patience too many times to count; your warmth was always deeply appreciated, especially in some of those gloomy days. To all of those friends who put up with me throughout, but especially Sorcha, Em, Caroline, Tracey, Fi, Gillian, Kelly and Kristy; tea, thai and wine never tasted better! To those friends who were further away, but whose support I have perhaps always felt most keenly: Dunc, V and Joce; and to those who have always been an immense source of personal and professional support and inspiration: Fee, K, Trev, Tim and E. Finally, to my big sis and little prawn; I can’t even begin… Just know how much I love you both. And to Mum and Dad, who are everything and have given everything. Always. vi Keywords sex work, prostitution, stigma, whore stigma, multiple stigma, gender, sexuality. Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC) ANZSRC code: 160805, Social Change, 50% ANZSRC code: 160810, Urban Sociology and Community Studies, 30% ANZSRC code: 160299, Criminology not elsewhere classified, 20% Fields of Research (FoR) Classification FoR code: 1608, Sociology, 70% FoR code: 1602, Criminology, 20% FoR code: 1606, Political Science, 10% vii Contents CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………….. 1 1.1 The Research Question .................................................................................................. 3 1.2 Methodology .................................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Existing Research ........................................................................................................... 5 1.3.1 Gender and the Whore Stigma ........................................................................ 6 1.3.2 Female Sex Workers and the Whore Stigma .................................................. 7 1.3.3 Male Sex Workers and the Whore Stigma ..................................................... 12 1.3.4 Layered Stigma ............................................................................................... 18 1.4 Original Contribution ..................................................................................................... 18 1.5 Theoretical Framework(s) ............................................................................................. 19 1.5.1 Feminist Approaches ..................................................................................... 19 1.5.2 Conceptualising Stigma ................................................................................. 22 1.5.3 Theorising ‘Whore Stigma’ ............................................................................. 23 1.5.4 Stigma Management ...................................................................................... 26 1.5.5 Emotional Labour and Emotion Management ............................................... 27 1.6 Thesis Argument ........................................................................................................... 29 1.7 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................. 29 CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY …………………………………………………………………… 31 2.1 Feminist Framework(s) ................................................................................................. 31 2.2 Epistemological and Ontological Foundation(s) ........................................................... 33 2.3 Methods .......................................................................................................................