LEVSHESTOV Introduction Home Texts Links Biblio @ philosopher lifeinRussia lifeinEurope nightmare faith LeonChestov ThelifeandthoughtofLevShestov byBernardMartin *Philosopher* LevShestov(18661938)belongstothesmallcompanyoftrulygreatreligiousph ilosophersofourtimeandhisworkdeservestheclosestattentionofallwhoar eseriouslyconcernedwiththeproblemsofreligiousthought. Unfortunately,Shestov'sstaturehasnothithertobeengenerallyrecognizednor hashisworkbeenwidelystudied.EveninEuropewherehisgeniuswasacknowle dgedbysuchfiguresasNikolaiBerdyaevandSergeiBulgakovinRussia,Julesde Gaultier,LucienL§ÛvyBruhlandAlbertCamusinFrance,andD.H.LawrenceandJoh nMiddletonMurryinEnglandhedidnotenjoyanygreatpopularityinhislife timeandnow,aquarterofacenturyafterhisdeath,hiswritingsarelittlere ad.InAmericahisnameispracticallyunknowntothegeneralpublic,andevenm anyprofessionalphilosophersandtheologiansareunacquaintedwithhiswork. Itisregrettablethatthisisso,andyetthefactitselfishardlysurprising. Shestovestablishednoschoolandhadnorealdisciples[1]tocarryonhiswor k.Hedidnotbelievethathehadcreatedanyclearlydefined,positivebodyof philosophicorreligiousthoughtthatcouldsimplybehandedontostudents,to beexpoundedandtaught.Whateverinsightsorwisdomhisownlifelongspiritual strivinghadbroughthimcouldnotbetransmittedbyintellectualprocessesto others;theirappropriationofhisexistentiallyacquired"truths"couldcomeab outonlythroughthesamekindofintensivepersonalstruggleandsearchonthei rpart.Butperhapsanevenmoreimportantreasonfortherelativeobscurityint owhichShestovhasfallenisthefactthatheisstubbornlyandunrelentinglya ntimodern.ThegodsofNineteenthandTwentiethCenturymanscience,technolo gy,theideaofinevitablehistoricalprogress,autonomousethicsand,mostofa ll,rationalistsystemsofphilosophywereforhimidols,devoidofultimatem eaningbutterribleintheirpotentialityfordestruction. ItisShestov'srevoltagainstscientismandphilosophicrationalism,arevoltc arriedonwithimmensepolemicalpassionandextraordinarydialecticalskill,th athasdrawnattentiontohisworkbutatthesametimerepelledmostreaders.S ome,tobesure,havefoundthatwhatShestovhastosayisextremelyimportant andworthlisteningto.Hisdiatribesagainsttheuntestedassumptionsofration alistmetaphysicsandpositivistscience,aswellashissuperbandpenetrating analysesofthesingular,theinexplicableandtheextraordinaryinthehumanps yche,madeaprofoundimpressiononatleastafewoftheimportantfiguresoft heFrenchExistentialistmovementwhoweredevelopingtheirphilosophicaloutloo kjustatthetimewhenhisworkswereappearinginFrance.AlbertCamus,forex ample,hasnotedtheintensityandconcentratedpowerofhisworkinthisconnec tion. Shestov...throughoutawonderfullymonotonouswork,constantlystrainingt owardthesametruths,tirelesslydemonstratesthatthetightestsystem,themos tuniversalrationalismalwaysstumbleseventuallyontheirrationalofhumanth ought.Noneoftheironicfactsorridiculouscontradictionsthatdepreciaterea sonescapeshim.Onethingonlyinterestshim,andthatistheexception,whethe rinthedomainoftheheartorofthemind.ThroughtheDostoevskianexperience softhecondemnedman,theexacerbatedadventuresoftheNietzscheanmind,Haml et'simprecations,orthebitteraristocracyofanIbsen,hetracksdown,illumi nates,andmagnifiesthehumanrevoltagainsttheirremediable.Herefusesreaso nitsreasonsandbeginstoadvancewithsomedecisiononlyinthemiddleoftha tcolorlessdesertwhereallcertaintieshavebecomestones.[2] ForShestov,however,hisrebellionagainstrationalismandscientismwasonly, asCamusrecognized,[3]apreliminarystep.Itwasaclearingofthewayforhis boldandferventaffirmation,inthematureandfinalphaseofhislife,ofthe truthofthebiblicalmessage.OnlyareappropriationofthefaithofScripture whichproclaimsthatmanandtheuniversearethecreationofanomnipotent, personalGodandthatthisGodmademaninHisownimage,endowinghimwithfree domandcreativepowercould,Shestovcametobelieve,liberatecontemporaryh umanityfromthehorrorsofexistence.Butsuchfaith,inthefaceofthemechan istandrationalistassumptionsunderlyingmodernscientificandphilosophicalt houghtandnowentirelydominatingthementalityofWesternman,isattainableo nlythroughagonizedpersonalstruggleagainstwhathascometoberegardedas" selfevident"truth.Shestovundertooktoshowthewaybyhisownbattleagainst theselfevident.WithamasterynotonlyoftheentireWesternphilosophictra ditionbutalsoofmodernEuropeanliterature,heusedhisvasterudition,aswe llastheardentpassionofhisentirebeingandhisextraordinaryliterarytale nts(D.S.MirskysaysofShestov'swritingthat"itisthetidiest,themostel egant,themostconcentratedinshort,themostclassicalproseinthewhole ofmodernRussianliterature.")[4]toforgeablazingindictmentofrationalist andscientistmetaphysicsinordertoregainformanwhatheconsideredthemos tpreciousofhumangifts:therighttoGodandtotheprimordialfreedomwhich Godhasgivenman. AmericanandBritishreaders,towhomthelifeandworkofthisgreatRussianJe wishthinkerarenowvirtuallyunknown,[5]canprofitfrombecomingacquaintedw ithhim.For,asWilliamBarretthassaidofShestov'swork,it"canshowuswha tthemindofwesternEurope,theheirofclassicismandrationalism,lookslike toanoutsiderparticularlytoaRussianoutsiderwhowillbesatisfiedwith nophilosophicanswersthatfallshortofthetotalandpassionatefeelingsofh isownhumanity."[6] *LifeinRussia* ShestovwasbornLevIsaakovichSchwarzmannonJanuary31,1866(February13,ac cordingtotheoldRussiancalendar)inKiev,wherehisfather,IsaakMoisseevic hSchwarzmann,awealthymerchantandmanufacturer,hadestablishedalargetext ilebusinessknownthroughoutsouthwestRussia.Inhisyouth,spentwithtwoyou ngerbrothersandfoursistersinalargehouseinthePodolquarterofKiev,Le vIsaakovichreceivedinstructioninHebrewandJewishliteraturefromatutore ngagedbyhisfather.Thefatherhimself,whilegenerallyregardedassomething ofafreethinkerbythemoreorthodoxJewsofKiev,wasaloverofHebrewliter atureandhadastrongloyaltytoJudaismandJewishtradition.Atonetimether ewastalkofexpellinghimfromtheKievsynagogueforhisallegedblasphemies andforhisirrepressibletendencytojokeaboutthenarrowmindednessofhisfe llowJews,butIsaakMoisseevichisreportedtohavesaid,"Atthetimeoftheh ighholidays,whentheycarrythescrollsoftheTorahintothesynagogue,Ialw ayskissthem."TheyoungLevIsaakovichhisbrotherinlaw,HermanLowtzky,t ellsus[7]delightedinhearinghisfatherrepeatstoriesandlegendsfroman cientJewishliterature. InordertoobtainfortheirsontheprivilegesaccordededucatedJewsbytheTz aristgovernment,hisparentsenrolledLevIsaakovichintheGymnasiumofKievb ut,afterbecominginvolvedinapoliticalaffair,hehadtoleave.Hefinished hisGymnasiumstudiesinMoscow,whereuponheenteredtheuniversitythere,stud yingfirstundertheFacultyofMathematicsandlaterundertheFacultyofLaw. AfteraruninwiththenotoriousInspectorofStudents,Bryzgalov,Shestovwas obligedtoreturntoKiev,wherehefinishedhisstudiesin1889withthetitle ofCandidateofLaws.Inhisuniversitydayshewasprimarilyinterestedinecon omicandsocialquestionsand,whilestudyinginMoscow,wrotealengthypapero ntheproblemsoftheRussianworkerwiththesubtitle"FactoryLegislationinR ussia."HisdoctoraldissertationatKievwasconcernedwiththeconditionofth eRussianworkingclass.ThoughacceptedbytheUniversityofKiev,thedisserta tionwassuppressedbytheCommitteeofCensorsinMoscowasrevolutionary.Henc eShestovcouldnotbecomeadoctoroflaw.Hewasinscribedontheofficiallis tofadvocatesatSt.Petersburgbutneverpracticedthelegalprofessionandla terlostmostofhisinterestinthelaw. TotheSchwarzmannhomeinKievintheearly1890's,attractedbytheyoungShes tov'sbrilliance,camemanyoftheleadingintellectualfiguresofthecity.As hislifelongfriendBulgakovwrote: InthehospitableSchwarzmannhomeatKievonecouldmeetmanyoftherepres entativesofthelocalintelligentsia,aswellaswritersandartistsfromthec apitalpassingthroughKiev.Peoplegatheredtheretoexchangeideasandtolist entomusic.Lifeatthattime(Iamspeakingofthe1890's)stillflowedequabl yandcalmly,butonlyupto1905,when,aftertherevolution,therebrokeouti nKievoneofthefirstpogroms,whichwefeltinallofitstragedy.Inthosey earsIhad,alongwithBerdyaev,tostrugglewiththelocalrepresentativesofp ositivismandatheismindefenseofareligiousoutlook.Shestovwasinsympathy withus,thoughhedidnothimselfparticipateinthediscussions.FromKievou rgroupmovednorth,andourtieswithShestovwerecontinuedandconsolidatedi nMoscow.Inthemidstofnewliterary,philosophicandreligiousmovements,She stovremainedhisoldself,withthesameparadoxicalphilosophy,andinvariably lovedbyall...[8] Afterfinishinghisstudiesattheuniversity,Shestoventeredhisfather'stext ilefirm.Thoughboredbybusinessaffairs,hemanagedtoacquireenoughskilli nmerchandisingandaccountingtostaveoffthebankruptcythenthreatenedbyhi sfather'soverextensionofthefirm'scredit.Atthesametimehemaintainedhi sliteraryinterestsandbegantowritefortheavantgardepressofKiev.Hepu blishedseveralarticles,includinganessayontheworkofSolovievandoneent itled"GeorgBrandesandHamlet,"[9]whichwastoserveasthebasisforhisfir stbook. Havingputthefamilybusinessonafirmfooting,Shestovturneditsmanagement overtohisbrothersinlawandyoungerbrothers,andin1895wenttoRome.[*]T herein1896hemarriedayoungmedicalstudent,AnnaEleazarovnaBerezovsky.[* *]Twodaughterswerebornofthemarriage,Tatianain1897andNataliein1900. In1898ShestovandhiswifemovedtoSwitzerlandwhereAnnafinishedherstudi esundertheFacultyofMedicineattheUniversityofBerne.AtthistimeShesto vconsideredpursuingacareerasasingerbut,accordingtohisbrotherinlaw Lowtzky,apupilofRimskyKorsakovandGabrielFaur§Ûwhobecameaneminentmusicol ogist,Shestov'steacherruinedhissplendidsingingvoice.Thisdidnot,howeve r,destroyhisinterestinmusic.Musicandpoetry(thoughhewasnotsatisfied withhisownattemptsatwritingverse)continuedtobehismajorinterests.The FrenchpoetsMusset,BaudelaireandVerlaineweregreatfavoritesofShesto v'satthisperiod,buthesoonabandonedpoetryandmusicforwhatPlatocalled "thehighestmusic"philosophy.