IMPACTS OF HAWAIIAN LANGUAGE LOSS AND PROMOTION VIA THE LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I AT MĀNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PUBLIC HEALTH AUGUST 2014 By Claire Keiko Martin Townsend Dissertation Committee: Joseph Keawe‘aimoku Kaholokula, Chairperson Kathryn L. Braun Tetine Sentell Andrew Grandinetti Kerry Laiana Wong Keywords: Native Hawaiian health, linguistic landscape, cultural trauma ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation study was supported by a Native Hawaiian Health Research Scholarship from the Department of Native Hawaiian Health at the John A Burns School of Medicine at the University of Hawai‘i. The contents of this dissertation are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official views of the funding agency. I would like to thank my committee members for their inspirational mentorship and encouragement, especially my committee Chairperson J. Keawe‘aimoku Kaholokula. Your advice, support, and patience have been invaluable. My deep appreciation also goes to my community partners at Kula no na Po‘e Hawai‘i and Ke Ola Mamo for their assistance with this study. I would also like to thank Shelley Soong, for volunteering her time as a researcher to assist me with the focus groups and qualitative data analysis. Of course, I would also extend my sincere appreciation to my parents, aunts, uncles, and grandparents for serving as a source of inspiration. And finally, I’d like to give my warmest appreciation to all of my friends and loving boyfriend who have supported me during my academic and research pursuits. ii ABSTRACT Social factors, such as cultural trauma via colonization, are increasingly being examined as important determinants of health. The decline in the Hawaiian language is an aspect of cultural trauma for Native Hawaiians. Indigenous health experts argue that revitalizing the Hawaiian language promotes positive self-esteem and cultural identity. True revitalization of the Hawaiian language involves promoting its use in the broader community. A bilingual linguistic landscape (BLL) may promote the Hawaiian language throughout Hawai‘i, improve its status, and increase Native Hawaiians’ connection to their culture. This dissertation research aims to: 1) through focus groups, describe the impact of Hawaiian language decline on Native Hawaiians and their views on the impact of a BLL, 2) through focus group data and relevant literature, identify key constructs related to support for a BLL and modify a survey to accurately measure those constructs, and 3) through survey administration, describe attitudes toward the Hawaiian language and toward the creation of a BLL. Focus group participants believed that learning the language strengthens their cultural identity, self-esteem, and the Hawaiian community, and that a BLL would improve the status of the Hawaiian language and Native Hawaiian health. A survey was modified to measure socio-demographic (e.g., age, ethnicity), attitudinal (e.g., support for a BLL), and behavioral (e.g., participation in the Hawaiian language) variables. This survey was administered to a random sample of 260 adult residents of Hawai‘i. The results indicate that Hawai‘i residents, regardless of ethnicity, have positive attitudes toward the Hawaiian language and support the idea of creating a BLL. Constructs significantly associated with this support were Hawaiian language skills, American iii identity, belief in the impact of a bilingual signs on the Hawaiian language and Native Hawaiian health, and belief in the importance of Hawaiian language perpetuation. This research improves the understanding of how language loss has influenced Native Hawaiians and their perceptions of the impact of a bilingual linguistic landscape. The most influential factors in determining support for bilingual signs among adult residents of Hawai‘i are attitudes, which are malleable. This has promising implications for state-wide Hawaiian language promotion campaigns. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... ii Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures ......................................................................................................................x Chapter 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................1 Loss of Language as a Consequence of Cultural Trauma in Hawai‘i......................2 Measuring Language Use ........................................................................................8 Hawai‘i’s Linguistic Landscape ............................................................................10 Bilingual Linguistic Landscape as Health Promotion ...........................................12 Focus of Dissertation .............................................................................................16 Chapter 2. Native Hawaiian’s Perceptions of the Importance of the Hawaiian Language and the Impact of a Bilingual Linguistic Landscape .........................................................21 Abstract ..................................................................................................................21 Introduction ............................................................................................................22 Methods..................................................................................................................23 Participants .................................................................................................23 Study Design ..............................................................................................24 Assessment Instruments .............................................................................25 Results ....................................................................................................................30 Thematic Analysis .....................................................................................30 Social Ecological Analysis ........................................................................44 Discussion ..............................................................................................................45 Thematic Discussion ..................................................................................45 Social Ecological Discussion .....................................................................48 Chapter 3. Modification and Pretest of the Attitudes Toward the Hawaiian Language Survey ................................................................................................................................51 Abstract ..................................................................................................................51 Introduction ............................................................................................................52 Methods..................................................................................................................55 Phase One: Item Generation and Modification ..........................................55 v Phase Two: Expert Review ........................................................................57 Phase Three: Cognitive Interviewing Pre-Test ..........................................58 Results ....................................................................................................................61 Phase One Results ......................................................................................61 Phase Two Results .....................................................................................68 Phase Three Results ...................................................................................69 Discussion ..............................................................................................................73 Chapter 4. Attitudes Toward the Hawaiian Language and Support for a Bilingual Linguistic Landscape .........................................................................................................77 Abstract ..................................................................................................................77 Introduction ............................................................................................................78 Methods..................................................................................................................79 Study Design ..............................................................................................79 Measures ....................................................................................................80 Sample........................................................................................................86 Procedures ..................................................................................................87 Data Analysis .............................................................................................88 Results ....................................................................................................................91 Descriptive Statistics ..................................................................................91