NOTES PREFACE 1. Frédéric Godart, Sociologie de la mode (Paris: La Décou- verte, 2010). The book has also been translated into Portuguese (Brazil): Frédéric Godart, Sociologia da moda (São Paulo: Editora Senac São Paulo, 2010). A Spanish (Argentina) translation is under way. 2. I am closely associated with the INSEAD MBA students’ “Retail, Consumer and Luxury Club” which provides me with countless opportunities to observe and interact with key actors of the fashion and luxury industries. 3. Frédéric Godart, “Status and Style in Creative Indus- tries: The Case of the Fashion System” (Columbia University, 2009). For my PhD thesis, as well as for follow-up work, I conducted more than 30 interviews and gathered countless data on the fashion and luxury industries. I did not explicitly use them for this book as I wanted to keep it short, but they certainly influenced my thinking. INTRODUCTION 1. Dazed and Confused is the name of a famous Brit- ish style magazine: http://www.dazeddigital.com/ [Accessed September 19, 2011]. 2. Catherine Maliszewski, “ Azzedine Alaïa, mutin de la mode,” Le Monde Magazine, July 2, 2011. The interview is in French and was translated by myself 148 NOTES into English, like all the texts used in this book for which I could not find a readily available English translation. 3. And more precisely, the focus of the documentary is on four fashion houses: Sonia Rykiel, Proenza Schouler, Fendi, and Jean-Paul Gaultier. 4. Among all the journalistic accounts of the worlds of fashion and luxury published over the last ten years, two are particularly enjoyable and informative: Mark Tungate, Fashion Brands: Branding Style from Armani to Zara (London: KoganPage, 2005); Dana Thomas, Deluxe: How Luxury Lost its Luster (London: Penguin Books, 2007). 5. Although cinema is a close second: Stephen Gundle, Glamour: A History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008). 6. Diana Crane and Laura Bovone, “Approaches to Mate- rial Culture: The Sociology of Fashion and Clothing,” Poetics 34, no. 6 (2006); Gilles Lipovetsky, The Empire of Fashion: Dressing Modern Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, [1987] 1994); Yuniya Kawamura, Fashion-ology: An Introduction to Fashion Studies (New York: Berg, 2005). 7. Nicoletta Giusti, Introduzione allo studio della moda (Bologna: Il Mulino, 2009). 8. Alain Quemin and Clara Lévy, “Présentation: Pour une sociologie de la mode et du vêtement,” Sociologie et sociétés 43, no. 1 (2011). 9. Kawamura, Fashion-ology: An Introduction to Fashion Studies. 10. Kawamura uses the spelling “fashion-ology,” but I pre- fer fashionology which fits better with sciences such as sociology, biology etc. 11. Richard E. Caves, Creative Industries: Contracts Between Art and Commerce (Cambridge, MA; London: Harvard University Press, 2000). 12. Crane and Bovone, “Approaches to Material Culture: The Sociology of Fashion and Clothing.”; Marie-Laure 149 NOTES Djelic and Antti Ainamo, “The Coevolution of New Organizational Forms in the Fashion Industry: A His- torical and Comparative Study of France, Italy, and the United States,” Organization Science 10, no. 5 (1999). 13. Fred Davis, Fashion, Culture, and Identity (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Dick Hebdige, Subculture: The Meaning of Style, New Accents (London: Routledge, 1979). 14. Georg Simmel et al., La Parure et autres essais (Paris: Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme, 1998). 15. Georg Simmel, “Fashion,” American Journal of Sociol- ogy 62, no. 6 (1904); Gabriel Tarde, The Laws of Imi- tation (New York: Henry Holt and Company, [1890] 1903). 16. Sergio Benvenuto, “Fashion: Georg Simmel,” Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation 3, no. 2 (2000), http://www.soc.surrey.ac.uk/JASSS/3/2/forum/2.html [Accessed September 15, 2011]. 17. Here it should be noted that “non-cumulative” does not mean that fashion is not enriched by time… Each decade and each century adds new styles that can be used and mixed with other styles by fashion designers. However, while in science and technology the idea of progress is prevalent (today’s cars perform better than yesterday’s cars), it is not true in fashion. Is 2011 better than the fashion from the 1960s? Probably not, but it is probably not worse either, just different. 18. Karl Popper The Logic of Scientifi c Discovery. (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1959). 19. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1962). 20. Andrew Hargadon, How Breakthroughs Happen: The Sur- prising Truth About How Companies Innovate (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 2003). 21. Philip H. Ennis, The Seventh Stream: The Emergence of Rocknroll in American Popular Music (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1992). 150 NOTES 22. Philippe Besnard and Guy Desplanques, Un prénom pour toujours: la cote des prénoms, hier, aujourd’hui et demain (Balland, 1986); Stanley Lieberson, A Matter of Taste: How Names, Fashions, and Culture Change (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000). 23. Eric Abrahamson and Gregory Fairchild, “Management Fashion: Lifecycles, Triggers, and Collective Learning,” Administrative Science Quarterly 44, no. 4 (1999). 24. Dwight E. Robinson, “Fashions in Shaving and Trim- ming of the Beard: The Men of the Illustrated London News, 1842–1972,” American Journal of Sociology 81, no. 4 (1976). 25. The exact boundaries of the fashion and luxury indus- tries can be debated. For example, a part of the hospi- tality industry (US$2,517 billion) or the personal care industry (US$827 billion) could be added to the luxury industry. 26. Pierre Bourdieu and Yvette Delsaut, “Le Couturier et sa griffe: contribution à une théorie de la magie,” Actes de la Recherche en Sciences Sociales 1, no. 1 (1975). The French word “griffe” literally means “claw” but can be trans- lated, in the context of the fashion industry, as “label.” The “griffe” of a fashion designer is thus his or her label. 27. Veronica Manlow, Designing Clothes: Culture and Organization of the Fashion Industry (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2007). 28. Farid Chenoune, Des modes et des hommes (Paris: Flam- marion, 1993). 29. Émile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Reli- gious Life: A Study in Religious Sociology (New York: Macmillan, [1912] 1926). 30. Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpre- tive Sociology (Berkeley: University of California Press, [1922] 1968). 31. Paul DiMaggio, “Market Structure, the Creative Process, and Popular Culture: Toward an Organizational Rein- terpretation of Mass-Culture Theory,” Journal of Popular Culture 11, no. 2 (1977); Paul D. Lopes, “Innovation 151 NOTES and Diversity in the Popular Music Industry, 1969 to 1990,” American Sociological Review 57, no. 1 (1992); Richard A. Peterson and David G. Berger, “Cycles in Symbol Production: The Case of Popular Music,” American Sociological Review 40, no. 2 (1975); Richard A. Peterson and David G. Berger, “Measuring Industry Concentration, Diversity, and Innovation in Popular Music,” American Sociological Review 61, no. 1 (1996). 32. Jennifer C. Lena and Richard A. Peterson, “Classifi- cation as Culture: Types and Trajectories of Music Genres,” American Sociological Review 73, no. 5 (2008). 33. William T. Bielby and Denise D. Bielby, “All Hits Are Flukes: Institutionalized Decision Making and the Rhetoric of Network Prime-Time Program Develop- ment,” American Journal of Sociology 99, no. 5 (1994). 34. Paul Hirsch, “Processing Fads and Fashions: An Orga- nization Set Analysis of Culture Industry Systems,” American Journal of Sociology 77, no. 4 (1972). 35. Howard S. Becker, Art Worlds (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982). 36. Herbert Blumer, “Fashion: From Class Differentiation to Collective Selection,” Sociological Quarterly 10, no. 3 (1969). 37. Hebdige, Subculture: The Meaning of Style. 38. Pierre Bourdieu, The Rules of Art: Genesis and Structure of the Literary Field (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992); Gisèle Sapiro, La Guerre des écrivains: 1940–1953, Histoire de la pensée (Paris: Fayard, 1999). 39. Bourdieu and Delsaut, “Le Couturier et sa griffe: con- tribution à une théorie de la magie.” 40. Raymonde Moulin, Le Marché de la peinture en France, Le Sens commun. (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1967); Alain Quemin, Les Commissaires-priseurs: la mutation d’une profession, Sociologiques (Paris: Anthropos, 1997). 41. Pierre-Michel Menger, “Artistic Labor Markets and Careers,” Annual Review of Sociology 25, no. 1 (1999). 42. Caves, Creative Industries: Contracts Between Art and Commerce. 152 NOTES 43. Matthew J. Salganik, Peter S. Dodds, and Duncan J. Watts, “Experimental Study of Inequality and Unpre- dictability in an Artificial Cultural Market,” Science 311, no. 5762 (2006). 44. Dominic Power and Allen John Scott, Cultural Indus- tries and the Production of Culture (London: Routledge, 2004). 45. Richard L. Florida, The Rise of the Creative Class: And How It’s Transforming Work, Leisure, Community and Everyday Life (New York: Basic Books, 2002). 46. Joanne Entwistle, “The Aesthetic Economy: The Pro- duction of Value in the Field of Fashion Modelling,” Journal of Consumer Culture 2, no. 3 (2002). 47. Ashley Mears, Pricing Beauty: The Making of a Fash- ion Model (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011). 48. Patrik Aspers, Orderly Fashion: A Sociology of Markets (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010). 49. Marcel Mauss, “Essai sur le don: forme et raison de l’échange dans les sociétés archaïques,” L’Année soci- ologique (1923/1924). 50. Claude Dubar, “La Méthode de Marcel Mauss,” Revue Française de Sociologie 10, no. 4 (1969). 51. Mauss, “Essai sur le don: forme et raison de l’échange dans les sociétés archaïques.” p. 274. CHAPTER 1 1. Sarah-Grace Heller, Fashion in Medieval France ( Cambridge: DS Brewer, 2007). p. 46. 2. Fernand Braudel, Capitalism and Material Life, 1400– 1800 (New York: HarperCollins, 1973). 3. Valerie Steele, Paris Fashion: A Cultural History, Second Edition ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). pp. 15–18. 4. Davis, Fashion, Culture, and Identity. p. 28. 153 NOTES 5. Philippe Perrot, Les Dessus et les dessous de la bour- geoisie : Une histoire du vêtement au XIXe siècle (Paris: Fayard, 1981).