The Centre on Conflict, Development and Peacebuilding 12 CCDP Working Paper Role and Governance of Islamic Charitable Institutions: Natural Resource Governance in Hybrid Political Orders: The Cases of North Kivu and Katanga Lara Atanasijevic REPUBLIQUE CENTRAFRICAINE SOUDAN Bangui Map 1 – DRC and Neighbouring Countries CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC SOUTH SUDAN Bangui PROVINCE CAMEROON ORIENTALE CAMEROUN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO CONGO EQUATEUR NORTH KIVU UGANDA Goma RWANDA Kigali KASAI SOUTH BURUNDI Brazzaville ORIENTAL KIVU Bujumbura Kinshasa KINSHASA MANIEMA BAS CONGO BADUNDU KASAI OCCIDENTAL TANZANIA Luanda KATANGA ANGOLA CONGO Lubumbashi ZAMBIA Map 2 – North Kivu Province NORTH KIVU GABON UGANDA WALIKALE RUTSHURU Bisie Njingala MASISI Masisi Walikale Rubaya Sake NYIRAGONGO DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC Goma RWANDA OF CONGO Brazzaville BURUNDI KINSHASA Kinshasa TANZANIE Luanda ANGOLA Lubumbashi ZAMBIE Table of Contents Executive Summary .................................................................................................................. 2 List of Acronyms ....................................................................................................................... 4 Introduction ........................................................................................................5 Research Process .................................................................................................7 Process and Methods ................................................................................................................. 7 Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 8 Making Sense of Natural Resource Governance ......................................................9 Governing Natural Resources in the Democratic Republic of Congo ...................... 11 Overview of Transparency and Traceability Schemes ............................................ 14 OECD Due Diligence Guidelines, Dodd-Frank Act and SEC .................................................. 14 Certification Schemes: CTC and ICGLR RCM ......................................................................... 15 Validation and Qualification of the Mining Sites .................................................................... 16 Supply Chain Management Initiatives.................................................................................... 16 North Kivu Province .......................................................................................... 20 Conflict Dynamics and Political Hybridity ............................................................................. 20 Governance of Natural Resources ............................................................................................21 Rubaya – Exploitation on Disputed Lands .............................................................................. 22 Katanga Province ............................................................................................... 25 Conflict Dynamics and Political Hybridity ............................................................................. 25 Governance of Natural Resources ........................................................................................... 27 The Closed Pipeline Operated by MMR and CDMC ............................................................... 28 Major Findings and Analysis .............................................................................. 31 De Facto Supply Chain ..............................................................................................................31 Mining Companies in Hybrid Political Orders ....................................................................... 35 State Outposts ......................................................................................................................... 38 “Illegitimate” Actors ................................................................................................................ 40 The Shift from 3T to Gold ....................................................................................................... 40 Conclusion and Outlook ..................................................................................... 43 Bibliography ...................................................................................................... 46 About the CCDP and the Author ............................................................................................. 52 Map 1 – DRC and Neighbouring Countries ................................... inside front cover Map 2 – North Kivu Province ..................................................... inside front cover Map 3 – Katanga Province with Territories ................................... inside back cover 2 Executive Summary Over the past decade various practical guidelines, schemes and tools have been developed with the aim of improving the governance of natural resources in conflict-affected and fragile states. Yet many of these initiatives are state-centric and targeting formal corporations, which tends to exhibit a certain disconnect from the governance reality observed in such challenging environments. The latter are often characterized by overlapping, competing and interlinking forms of power and authority where the state shares the control, legitimacy and capacity to function and provide essential services with a variety of informal networks, strongmen or traditional institutions. Given the scant evidence on how such initiatives play out in hybrid political contexts, this CCDP Working Paper contributes much-needed insights on de facto natural resource governance and the implementation of such initiatives. Drawing on in-depth fieldwork conducted by Lara Atanasijevic in 2013 and 2015 in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), this publication analyses the governance of “3T minerals” (tin, tantalum and tungsten ore) in the provinces of North Kivu and Katanga. These areas have recently witnessed the implementation of a variety of national, regional and international initiatives such as the OECD Due Diligence Guidelines, Section 1502 of the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform Consumer Protection Act (Dodd-Frank Act), the Tin Supply Chain Initiative (iTSCi), and the IGCLR Regional Certification Mechanism (RCM). This CCDP Working Paper distinguishes different modalities of hybrid political order in the two provinces. In North Kivu, where power, authority and extractive revenues are shared, interlinked and marked by active competition across a multitude of stakeholders, de facto governance of 3T minerals in the artisanal mining sector is characterized by a reasonably well-organized system of cooperation, coordination and hierarchical attribution of roles amongst various actors – including customary societal entities, traditional authorities, state officials and armed groups. Traceability and transparency initiatives in this context were found to be largely inefficient or entirely dysfunctional. In northern Katanga, by contrast, a number of factors such as its geographical location, the degree of regional interference and insecurity as well as provincial policies have led to a significantly different development of 3T governance since the Second Congo War (1998-2003). Instead of the trading centre supply chain in North Kivu, the closed pipeline supply chain in northern Katanga involves a predetermined and limited number of stakeholders that are directly linked to each other and primarily operated under the auspices of Mining Mineral Resources (MMR). In governing their own sphere of influence, sharing power and authority with other actors, managing security and engaging in dispute settlement, MMR becomes part of the hybrid political order and at times fulfils classical state tasks – to the point where local governance is literally “outsourced” to MMR by the provincial authorities. CCDP Working Paper 3 Lara Atanasijevic’s research efforts highlight the importance of focusing on the governance reality in order to conceive strategies towards a peaceful management of precious minerals in an intricate social, political and economic context such as eastern DRC. Making sense of this reality is not only crucial for meaningful engagement with existing “legitimate” authorities, but also to anticipate potential challenges regarding “illegitimate” actors or “spoilers” that may emerge. Indeed, while much attention has been paid to how natural resource governance can lead to social and economic development, the centrality of natural resource governance in state-and peacebuilding has arguably been underestimated. The CCDP Working Paper suggests that more encompassing approaches might entail increased engagement with the actors (such as traditional authorities) that make up the hybrid political order observed, as well as an amplified sensitivity to the de facto roles different stakeholders may inherit or obtain in governing natural resources. Furthermore, investigating the roles and responsibilities of mining companies in such orders might not be sufficient, and while the socio-economic and security situation in eastern DRC is also influenced by broader national and international developments such as national elections and mineral price fluctuations on global markets, more consultation and engagement with local populations would appear to be a crucial ingredient to effective governance. The field research undertaken for this CCDP Working Paper was generously funded through a grant