Master thesis in Sustainable Development 2021/23 Examensarbete i Hållbar utveckling ‘The world has changed; these days, women are the ones who are keeping their families’. Gender norms, women’s economic empowerment and male capture in the rural Tanzanian poultry value-chain Viktor Johansson DEPARTMENT OF EARTH SCIENCES INSTITUTIONEN FÖR GEOVETENSKAPER Master thesis in Sustainable Development 2021/23 Examensarbete i Hållbar utveckling 'The world has changed; these days, women are the ones who are keeping their families'. Gender norms, women's economic empowerment and male capture in the rural Tanzanian poultry value-chain Viktor Johansson Supervisor: Dr. Johanna Bergman Lodin Subject Reviewer: Dr. Stephanie Leder Copyright © Viktor Johansson and the Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University. Published at Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University (www.geo.uu.se), Uppsala, 2021. Contents Contents .......................................................................................................................................... I 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1. Agriculture, Sustainable Development and Gender Equality .............................................. 1 1.2. Livestock and Sustainable Development ............................................................................ 2 1.3. Resource Allocation and Gender Equality within Livestock Keeping ................................ 3 1.4. Poultry in Tanzania ........................................................................................................... 4 1.4.1. Strategy pillar (i): Geonomics ................................................................................... 6 1.4.2. Strategy pillar (ii): Increased access to urban markets ............................................... 7 2. Aim and objectives .................................................................................................................. 10 3. Background ............................................................................................................................ 11 3.1. Introduction to male capture ........................................................................................... 11 3.1.1. Intensification of production; implications following strategy pillar (i) ................... 13 3.1.2. Integration to formal markets; implications following strategy pillar (ii) ................. 14 3.2. Women's economic empowerment - a call for better understanding ................................. 16 4. Theory .................................................................................................................................... 17 4.1. Women's empowerment .................................................................................................. 17 4.1.1. Capabilities, functionings and empowerment as a process ....................................... 17 4.1.2. Power Through ........................................................................................................ 19 4.1.3. Intra-household bargaining power and resource allocation ....................................... 20 4.2. Generalizable indicators for policy makers or the need for grounded theory? .................. 22 4.2.1. Gender transformative approach as a way forward ................................................... 23 5. Research procedure and method ........................................................................................... 25 5.1. Research design .............................................................................................................. 25 5.2. Research setting .............................................................................................................. 26 5.2.1. International Livestock Research Institute ............................................................... 26 I 5.2.2. Research areas ......................................................................................................... 27 5.3. Study participants and sampling ...................................................................................... 29 5.4. Data collection ................................................................................................................ 30 5.5. Data analysis ................................................................................................................... 31 5.6. Ethical considerations ..................................................................................................... 33 5.7. Reflexivity ...................................................................................................................... 33 6. Findings .................................................................................................................................. 35 6.1. Demography .................................................................................................................... 35 6.2. Finding 1 - Negotiation within a changing normative climate: women's increased presence in the economy, and men's shrinking space of power ................................................................... 37 6.2.1. Women in Hai and Siha Districts of Kilimanjaro Region entered the economy in the absence of a breadwinner husband ........................................................................................... 38 6.2.2. Women are expected to generate income for their families ...................................... 39 6.2.3. Men struggle to meet the responsibilities of a breadwinner husband ........................ 40 6.2.4. Men in Ruangwa and Lindi Rural Districts of Lindi Region within the regression of a patriarchal society as women step forward ............................................................................... 41 6.2.5. Women search for a cooperative and supportive husband ........................................ 43 6.2.6. A good wife Hai and Lindi Rural Districts are expected to be responsible for household chores and be the source of happiness - on top of generating income ....................................... 44 6.3. Finding 2 - Women's economic agency may empower but also compromise women's ability to adopt a practice of innovation ................................................................................................. 46 6.3.1. Women's economic agency increase their intra-household bargaining power ........... 46 6.3.2. Men's experience of feeling uninvolved might compromise women's ability to adopt a practice of innovation .............................................................................................................. 48 6.3.3. Uninformed men might compromise women's ability to adopt innovation ............... 48 6.3.4. Jealous men might compromise women's ability to adopt a practice of innovation ... 49 6.4. Finding 3 - Development opportunities add levels of negotiation: the selfish controlling wife faces the successful woman entrepreneur. .................................................................................... 50 6.4.1. Women may receive support in their quest to secure personal income in a growing business 51 II 6.4.2. Women may face stigmatization in their quest to secure personal income in a growing business 53 6.4.3. Successful female entrepreneurs and their husbands may be congratulated but also stigmatized if the business grows ............................................................................................. 54 6.5. Synthesis ......................................................................................................................... 57 7. Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 59 7.1. Normative expectations and household bargaining .......................................................... 59 7.1.1. Women's economic agency improves their intra-household bargaining position and supports women to adopt practices of innovation ..................................................................... 59 7.1.2. Leave no one behind: men's lack of access to development opportunities may compromise women's ability to adopt a practice of innovation ................................................. 61 7.2. Resource allocation in a growing business ....................................................................... 62 7.2.1. The gender accommodative approach Women in Business may create additional negotiation processes in which women need to bargain for economic agency ........................... 62 7.3. Strengths and limitations ................................................................................................. 63 8. Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 66 9. References ............................................................................................................................... 68 Annex A - Discussion Guide ......................................................................................................... 82 Annex B - Research Permit ........................................................................................................... 96 III Acknowledgements In late October 2019, I received an e-mail from Dr. Alessandra Galié - Senior Gender Scientist at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in