© 2018 Laura Johnson ALL RIGHTS RESERVED INCREASING FINANCIAL EMPOWERMENT FOR SURVIVORS OF INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE: A LONGITUDINAL EVALUATION OF A FINANCIAL KNOWLEDGE CURRICULUM by LAURA JOHNSON A dissertation submitted to the School of Graduate Studies Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Social Work Written under the direction of Judy L. Postmus And approved by ______________________________________ ______________________________________ ______________________________________ ______________________________________ New Brunswick, New Jersey May, 2018 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION INCREASING FINANCIAL EMPOWERMENT FOR SURVIVORS OF INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE: A LONGITUDINAL EVALUATION OF A FINANCIAL KNOWLEDGE CURRICULUM by LAURA JOHNSON Dissertation Director: Judy L. Postmus, Ph.D. One of the most significant barriers that survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV) face when trying to leave an abusive relationship is a lack of financial resources (M. Anderson et al., 2003; Fugate et al., 2005; Meyer, 2012). Further, access to financial resources is a predictor of whether a survivor of IPV will terminate an abusive relationship (D. K. Anderson & Saunders, 2003; Bornstein, 2006). Recognizing that financial insecurity is a significant issue for survivors of IPV in the U.S., several domestic violence organizations have begun implementing financial empowerment programs, such as financial literacy interventions, for their clients. Financial literacy interventions focus on equipping individuals with financial planning and management skills as to improve their financial well-being (Vitt et al., 2000). There has been particular interest in financial literacy programs within the U.S. because they promote individual fiscal responsibility and well-being. Financial literacy interventions developed for survivors of IPV often focus on providing survivors with the ii knowledge and skills needed to navigate financial barriers that arise as a result of their abusive relationships (Peled & Krigel, 2016). Thus far, a few organizations have begun to import financial literacy programs designed for the general population and modify them for use with survivors of IPV. While initial evaluations of these programs have been positive, none have specifically focused on the construct of psychological empowerment in the financial domain (PEFD) and whether increasing financial literacy is effective in empowering survivors. As such, this dissertation aimed to answer one primary research question: For female survivors of IPV, did attending sessions on the Moving Ahead Through Financial Empowerment (Moving Ahead) curriculum result in increased PEFD over time? In answering this question, this dissertation aimed to: a) test a conceptual model for PEFD based on Christens’ (2012) nomological network for psychological empowerment; and b) use the measurement model developed in the first aim to evaluate the effectiveness of the Moving Ahead curriculum in increasing PEFD over time among the sample of participants. To answer this question, this secondary study utilized data from 449 female survivors of IPV who participated in a longitudinal randomized controlled trial evaluating the impact of a financial literacy intervention on survivors of IPV. Survivors were recruited from 14 domestic violence organizations across 7 states plus Puerto Rico between July 2011 and March 2012. To address the first aim of this dissertation, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to determine the factor structure of the components of PEFD using data from T1. This was followed by longitudinal multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), iii which was utilized to test for measurement invariance across the treatment and control groups over time. To answer the second aim of this dissertation, latent growth curve modeling (LGCM) was used to determine whether participants who received the intervention experienced changes in PEFD over time. PEFD was conceptualized using Christens’ (2012) nomological network for psychological empowerment and thus had four components: emotional, cognitive, relational, and behavioral. Overall, initial findings were positive, as CFAs utilized to test for longitudinal and multi-group measurement invariance demonstrated an acceptable model fit and partial scalar measurement invariance between the treatment and control groups. Results from the LGCM demonstrated that the intervention contributed to a statistically significant rate of change with the per-protocol analytic sample but not the intent-to-treat analytic sample. However, other factors may moderate the effectiveness of the intervention, specifically for the intent-to-treat analytic sample who did not complete the interviews across all four time points. In examining the construct of financial empowerment and testing the effectiveness of a financial literacy intervention in increasing PEFD among survivors of IPV, this dissertation furthers conceptualizations of PEFD for both research and practice. The findings also provide practical information to IPV service providers and policy makers on the benefits of financial literacy interventions and the need to invest more resources into their implementation. iv Acknowledgements These past five years in the doctoral program have been a roller coaster ride. I would like to extend a sincere thanks to those who supported me along the way. To Drs. Judy Postmus and Sarah McMahon, they say do what you love, and you’ll never work another day in your life. Thank you for giving me the space to take risks, grow as a researcher, and learn what it means to encompass feminist leadership. I am so grateful to you both for the providing me with the opportunity to do what I love. Five years ago, what started as an interest in sitting in on an Advanced Statistics class resulted in my entering the PhD program. Dr. Andy Peterson, your patient disposition and supportive nature made statistics approachable from the beginning. Thank you for introducing me to quantitative research and always lending your expertise. To Dr. Brian Christens, thank you for your critical eye and attentiveness to everything from the minute details and larger conceptual framework of this dissertation. It has been a pleasure to work with you. Sarah, your compassion, warmth, and sincere appreciation for those around you makes navigating the challenges of academic and personal life much more manageable. I know it always has for me. Lastly, I would like to acknowledge, in particular, Judy, who has been my greatest advocate and mentor. I always appreciate our “adventures,” from Liberia to the emergency room in New Brunswick… I would not be here without you. To my partner, Scott, thank you for your love, comfort, encouragement, patience, and putting up with my books and articles randomly placed about the house for five years. My life is better because you are in it. I would also like to thank my sweet boy, Chewie – his loving nature and quirky disposition always make me smile. Chewie v deserves his dog-torate for all of the time he has spent lying beside me as I have worked. He has brought so much joy to my life, as well as others. I couldn’t have asked for a better pup. To my parents, thanks for talking to me on the phone to and from work every day, loving, encouraging, and supporting me, and ensuring that Scott, Chewie, and I are always well-fed and safe. I could not have asked for a more nurturing family. I would also like thank my Aunt Paula and Uncle Rich, as well as my extended family, for their love and support. To the friends at VAWC I have made along the way, thanks for giving me the courage to enroll in a PhD program, providing research guidance and an ear when I just needed to vent, and so many laughs. And to my dear friend, Madison, thanks for moving into my dorm room twelve years ago and for keeping my life unpredictable ever since. And lastly, to Poppy, I will never forget you. vi Table of Contents Abstract of the Dissertation ................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. v List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures .................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1 – Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................ 1 “Why Doesn’t She Just Leave?” – Barriers to Survivor Independence .......................... 2 Association between IPV, Financial Abuse, and Financial Dependence ........................ 3 Increasing Financial Knowledge as an IPV Intervention ................................................ 6 Gaps Identified and Purpose of the Study ....................................................................... 9 Research Questions and Research Aims ....................................................................... 10 Chapter 2 – Theoretical Framework ................................................................................. 11 Conceptualizations of Empowerment ..........................................................................