THE SWINGING PENDULUM: FROM CENTRALITY TO MARGINALITY- A STUDY OF SOUTHERN TENASSERIM IN THE HISTORY OF SOUTHEAST ASIA J. A. Mills1 Abstract From early in the first millennium AD, southern Tenasserim, now part of Myanmar (Burma) has played a significant role in the history of Southeast Asia, being always open to trade and cultural influences from India and the West. From the 15th century it was the major port of the Siamese Kingdom of Ayutthaya until its conquest by the Burmese in 1760 when its importance declined and today it plays a marginal role in the economy and politics of both Myanmar and Thailand. Recent developments in both states, particularly in the field of gas and oil exploration, promise to give back the region some of its former importance. Introduction outhern Tenasserim is the most south­ political and economic developments in the Serly part of the state of Burma. Lying on history of this part of Southeast Asia but at the west coast of the narrow neck of land, it other times has been of pivotal significance. adjoins the even narrower Isthmus of Kra Possessing both resources of economic value linking mainland Southeast Asia to the and a position of strategic significance, Malay Peninsula and wider maritime South­ Mergui undoubtedly has had its history east Asian region. Historically Mergui has shaped by what Trevor Roper (1957: vi) been the most important town on this coast, once called the 'interplay between ... intrac­ though now it is virtually unknown to the table geographical facts and the creative or outside world, a state of affairs exacerbated disruptive forces which wrestle with them'. by the fact that much of this region has been Lying atop the long tongue of land largely in the grip of insurgents for the last stretching from the mainland to the Malay half century. The period when it achieved Peninsula that divides the waters of the Bay greatest fame, moreover, was when it was of Bengal from those of the Gulf of Thailand, the major western port of the Thai state of Mergui is one of a number of places at river A yutthaya until its fall to the Burmese in mouths on the isthmus situated astride the 1760, for Mergui lies much closer to both main sea routes from East to West. In the A yutthaya and Bangkok than to any of the early history of the region the narrowness of major cities of Burma - past or present- so the peninsula at these places, and of the that its history is as much a part of that of watershed along its spine separating streams Thailand as it is of Burma. flowing down both sides to the coasts, greatly For much of that long history, Mergui, facilitated transpeninsular crossings. These sometimes also known as Tenasserim be­ portage routes, circumventing the longer cause of the river it stands on and the old sea voyage around the peninsula, were par­ entrepot town of that name some forty miles ticularly attractive at times of political insta­ inland, has been on the periphery of major bility or hostility in the Straits area further south and their importance was enhanced 1 Department of Economic History, University because of the access they provided to the of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. interior of Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and journal of The Siam Society Vol85, Parts 1 & 2 35 J. Mills GUJARAT ~ .,Pagan .~ BAY OF BENGAL~gk~oulmein Coco Island, . B~. o~('-yutthaya, .Angkor AND ·ANDAMAN , ~ ;'Mergui • ISLANDS vt . '\~ ( • I SEA . GULF OF , TiiAILAND Isthmus of Kra NICOBAR ISLAND~_; ~~~~ Wlfrn ~7 .p(ac~\ .. ~ ·.:' ingapore ~ -~~ ·~·· INDIAN OCEAN ~ I - ,.Q JAVA SEA Figure 1. The Indian Ocean and surrounding areas, locating important places mentioned in the text. even inland China. Trading and entrepot After the establishment of Singapore in 1819 centres grew up along the coast where ships as the major entrepot for Southeast Asia and could shelter, their crews seek provisions, the advent of steamships, Mergui and the and their traders engage in commerce with isthmus largely lost their strategic signifi­ others from afar, aided by the yearly rhythm cance. In the colonial period Mergui became of monsoons bringing and sending traders merely a small and somewhat neglected from east to west and back again. coastal port for the immediate hinterland, Archaeological and historical evidence though several stillborn schemes to cut a suggests the port of Mergui was integral to canal through the narrow Isthmus of Kra one of the number of early isthmus entrepot along the border between Burma and Siam centres created by the growing trade of In­ served as reminders of the strategic poten­ dia and further west with China and the tial of this zone. Once Burma regained its east. Once powerful mainland states such as independence, insurgency ensured that the Pagan, Ayutthaya, and later Ava arose, the district remained marginal to the Burmese capacity of Mergui and its hinterland city of state; but towards the end of the 20th cen­ Tenasserim to sustain their autonomy was tury there are indications that this southern considerably reduced and mostly they be­ Tenasserim coast is regaining importance, came instead valuable outliers of the do­ because of both its position and its resources. mains of these larger states as well as fo­ cuses for periodic inter-state contention. 36 Journal of The Siam Society Vol85, Parts 1 & 2 The Swinging Pendulum ... southern Tenasserim Ye BAY •• OF o, BENGAL (l· ,' ANDAMAN SEA OF THAILAND 0 TENASSERIM & PENINSULAR THAILAND Figure 2. The southern Tenasserim Coast and Peninsular Thailand. Journal of The Siam Society Vol85, Parts 1 & 2 37 J. Mills Geography early isthmian entrepots (Tremenheere 1886: 251). Mergui may also have been one of the The south Tenasserim littoral lies sheltered sites the Arabs called Kallah, (cf. Wheatley from the open sea by the fringe of 900 or so 1961: 223-4; Hall 1985: 176, 200, 326). The islands of the Mergui Archipelago extend­ hinterland was also the source of valuable ing about 80 miles north of Mergui and forest produce - sapanwood, gums, and many miles south beyond Victoria Point honey. In its entrepot period Mergui­ (Kawthaung) on the boundary with Thai­ Tenasserim also had a reputation for the land. Though Victoria Point stands on the quality and exports of its rice. But fertile soil Pakchan River which cuts well into the Isth­ was limited to a narrow coastal strip and it is mus of Kra, the river is shallow and tidal, likely locally-grown rice was supplemented unsuitable for sizeable craft (Smyth 1898 IT: by imports from the larger granary areas of 30). From north of Tavoy to as far south as Tavoy and Pegu (Collis 1965: 168; Milburn Kapoe (Takuapa) in southern Thailand, 1813 II: 289-90; Burney 1971 II ii: 207). By the Mergui was undoubtedly the best port along late 1930s the region was a rice deficit area this stretch of the coast, though some of the but ideally suited to fruit growing and by islands also possessed good harbours (Brown then the main rubber producing area of 1907: 476; Collis 1953: 240). Navigable chan­ Burma. The irregular and highly indented nels along the coast are tortuous, sometimes coastline and island shores, mostly edged by no more than a quarter of a mile wide, with mangroves, constitute rich fishing grounds, unmarked shoals and islets on either side, yielding sea produce similar to that of the and historically the harbour itself was not Malay region, while edible birds' nests come always easy to find, as attested by Caesare from caves in the islands. dei Fredici who spent eight days fruitlessly Population density has fluctuated in looking for it among the maze of islands in this region mostly because of political fac­ 1568 (Tregonning 1967: 145-7; Collis 1965: tors, but its limited agricultural capacity 34). Because of the calm sheltered waters and comparative remoteness from the lying behind the island on which Mergui major Thai and Burmese political and eco­ largely stands, the town was widely regarded nomic centres ensured it has never had as a safe all-weather port, offering protec­ the same demographic potential as the tion from the monsoons which caused many mainland river kingdoms. Even when shipwrecks along this coast. The Tenasserim Tenasserim was famous as an entrepot, River itself was navigable for quite large travellers in the region noted that much of boats up to Tenasserim, the main entrepot, it was more the haunt of wild animals which possibly had developed there to be such as tigers, elephants, crocodiles and out of reach of pirates on the coast (d. Smyth rhinoceros than of man (Kerr 1933: 205; 1898 II: 64) or else to be more accessible from Smyth 1898 1: 310; Gervaise 1989: 50-1). the Gulf of Siam. The peoples of this region are ethnically In climate, terrain, and physical resources diverse, reflecting historical events as well this part of Burma can be regarded as an as geography, and this ethnic fragmentation extension of the Malay Peninsula with its serves to undermine political development heavy rainfall, narrow coastal plain and rug­ and any long-term communal cohesion. ged mountain spine as well as mineral de­ Much of the population to the north ofTavoy posits of tin, antimony, coal, wolfram and and Mergui has always had a strong Mon offshore deposits of petroleum. Of these, component but the peopleofTavoyregarded historically tin was undoubtedly the most themselves as quite distinct, with memories significant. Indeed there is evidence sug­ of a separate identity dating back to the time gesting the tin deposits ofTavoy and Mergui of the empire of Pagan (Smith 1991: 31; have been worked for many centuries, prob­ Lieberman 1978: 468,479).