Challenging the Tiger Mother Stereotype? Christian Chinese Immigrant Homeschooling Mothers’ Parenting Practices A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Chun Zhang IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Mark Vagle, Ph.D. September 21, 2015 © Chun Zhang 2015 CROSS-CULTURAL PARENTING i Acknowledgements I would like to extend my deep gratitude to several individuals who have contributed greatly to the success of this project. • My family, parents, Peili Zhang, Huaizhen Yan, my sister and brothers, Yan Zhang, Zhurui Zhang, Wang Zhang, and my husband Jason Creaser • My advisor, Dr. Mark Vagle, who always encouraged me and fellow committee members • The three evangelical Christian Chinese immigrant homeschooling mothers along with their children • My editors, Sheryl Holt and Lynn England CROSS-CULTURAL PARENTING ii Dedication I dedicate this work to my parents with my deepest appreciation for their infinite love and support throughout my education journey in the United States. CROSS-CULTURAL PARENTING iii Abstract Good parenting has a major influence on positive child outcomes (Baumrind1983; Darling & Steinberg, 1993), and parents often seek information about how to raise their children according to their personal and cultural values. Young Chinese parents tend to seek information and materials originating in the West for good parenting references because of the lack of indigenous parenting studies (Goh, 2011) and because of their higher regard for Western society (Fong, 2004; Goh, 2011). However, Chinese immigrant families who live in the United States increasingly choose to homeschool their children for academic reasons and/or religious reasons (Fu, 2008; Sun, 2007). The purpose of this ethnographic study is to explore three evangelical Christian Chinese immigrant homeschooling mothers’ cross-cultural parenting practices in the United States. This study addresses three research questions: (1) What does it mean for evangelical Christian Chinese immigrant mothers to home educate their children? (2) How do evangelical Christian Chinese immigrant homeschooling mothers and their children interact with each other when confronting conflicts in the homeschooling setting? and (3) What stories do evangelical Christian Chinese immigrant homeschooling mothers tell regarding their parenting beliefs and practices in the homeschooling setting in the U.S.? These research questions emerged from an extensive literature review. Three evangelical Christian Chinese immigrant homeschooling mothers were recruited to participate in this study. Data were collected through intensive participatory observation, interviews, and selective documentary collection at each mother’ home. The CROSS-CULTURAL PARENTING iv findings suggested that identity is subjective and context oriented. Additionally, three parenting patterns were illustrated from these Christian Chinese immigrant homeschooling mothers’ parent-child conflict management: (1) pushing for obedience and immediate discipline, if needed; (2) negotiated child obedience; (3) letting go without pushing for obedience. Implications from this study suggest the need for individualized and cultural-sensitive parent education programs. CROSS-CULTURAL PARENTING v Table of Contents Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………………………….…..i Dedication………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……...ii Abstract ................................................................................................................................... iii Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 Research Problem ......................................................................................................... 1 Research Purpose and Research Questions .................................................................. 5 Definition of Key Terms .............................................................................................. 7 Chapter 2: Literature Review ................................................................................................. 10 Bioecological Human Development ......................................................................... .11 Homeschooling in the U.S. and China ...................................................................... .16 The Concept of Self and Other in Confucian ............................................................ .20 Confucius Parenting .................................................................................................. .24 Self in Christianity .................................................................................................... .38 Christian (Biblical Scripture-Centered) Parenting .................................................... .40 Bidirectional Parent-Child Communication .............................................................. .50 Chapter 3: Ethnographic Research ......................................................................................... 54 Understanding Ethnography as a Research Methodology ......................................... 54 Practicing Ethnographic Research ............................................................................. 57 Analyzing Ethnographic Data .................................................................................... 62 Writing and Rewriting Process as an Ethnographer .................................................. 67 Research Positionality………………………………………………………………………………….69 Chapter 4: Faith, Identity and Home……………………………………………..................72 CROSS-CULTURAL PARENTING vi Family Portfolios ........................................................................................................ 72 Who I am?................................................................................................................. 78 Where is Home? ......................................................................................................... 84 God-Centered World View ........................................................................................ 86 Parental Expectations to Children .............................................................................. 87 Chapter 5: Qing’s Everyday Parenting .................................................................................. 93 Qing’s Family Typical Day Schedule ........................................................................ 93 Qing’s Conflict Management ..................................................................................... 98 Chapter 6: Xian’s Everyday Parenting ................................................................................. 122 Xian’s Family Typical Day Schedule ...................................................................... 122 Xian’s Conflict Management ................................................................................... 125 Chapter 7: De’s Everyday Parenting .................................................................................... 153 De’s Family Typical Day Schedule ......................................................................... 153 De’s Conflict Management ...................................................................................... 157 Chapter 8: Discussion and Conclusions ............................................................................... 191 Research Implications, Limitations and Future Research Directions……………………….211 References ............................................................................................................................ 214 Appendix A: Institution Review Board (IRB) Approval ..................................................... 222 Appendix B: Consent Form in English & Chinese .............................................................. 224 Appendix C: Jing’s Bible Verse Copy ................................................................................. 229 Appendix D: Tiao’s Bible Verse Copy ................................................................................ 230 Appendix E: Sam’s Self-Designed Study Schedule ............................................................. 231 CROSS-CULTURAL PARENTING 1 Chapter 1: Introduction Along with social and economic development, well-educated, young Chinese parents have increasingly paid close attention to the quality of their parenting. Good parenting has a major influence on positive child outcomes (Baumrind 1983; Darling & Steinberg, 1993), and situates parents in the strongest position to influence their children’s value acquisition and social behaviors. Parents are also in a significant position to monitor and understand their children’s behaviors due to the parents’ constant exposure to their children (Kuczynski & Grusec, 1997). Young Chinese parents tend to improve their parenting skills by referring to information and materials originating in the West because of the lack of indigenous parenting studies (Goh, 2011) and parenting education programs, and the higher regard for Western society (Fong, 2004; Goh, 2011). These materials include parenting self-help books and information on parenting practices based on research that is mostly based on white American, middle and upper class families’ parenting norms and standards. To improve their own parenting practices, Chinese parents look up to parents of successful children, based on their definition of “successful.” Like many other parents,